PSY 364 Exam 3

Phonology

the sound system, basic language sounds, basic units of sound that can change the meaning of a word

ex- ba, da

Morphology

forming words from sounds, basic units of meaning that exist in a word

ex- kitch-en

language

communication system in which a limited number of signals—sounds or letters (or gestures, in the case of the sign language used by deaf people)—can be combined according to agreed-upon rules to produce an infinite number of messages

Syntax

grammar (sentences from words), systematic rules for forming sentences

ex- the dog bit me vs. the dog me bit

semantics

meaning (word meaning), understanding the sentence

(related to syntax)

language development

prelinguistic abilities

first sounds and feedback

vocalizations (more purposeful)

babbling

home language sounds

comprehension before production

True or False

babies can understand/comprehend language before being able to speak it

True

when do vocalizations occur

6-8 weeks

when does babbling occur

4-6 months

when does home language sound development occur

8 months

What do 1 year olds typically talk about

familiar objects and actions

First year word characteristics

holophrases, nonverbal information, intonation, nouns first

holophrases

single words

intonation

question, request, demand

18 month old word characteristics

vocabulary spurt of 30-50 words

24 month old word characteristics

about 60 - 500 words

True or False

development of words have wide individual differences

True

What could cause the development of word differences between kids

different processing speeds

What age do first mistakes in language occurs

2 years old

Types of language mistakes that occur at around 2 years old

overextension, underextension, overregularization

overextension

too broad

calling all animals doggie

using a word to refer to too wide a range of objects or events, as when a 2-year-old calls all furry, four-legged animals “doggie.

underextension

too narrow

calling all dogs like the family dog doggie but not any other dog or animal

a child initially uses the word doggie to refer only to basset hounds like the family pet.

overextension and underextension are examples of Piaget’s what

concept of assimilation

overregularization

applying rules too broadly

saying runed instead of ran,

foots or goed

What do the word mistakes at 2 years old suggest

an understanding of grammatical rules

type of speech at 2 years old

telegraphic speech

telegraphic speech

critical content only (2+ word utterances)

Ex: want cake now, they mine

How many words does a 1st grader know

10,000 words

Adolescents language development

sentences become longer and more complex, metalinguistic awareness

metalinguistic awareness

knowledge of language as a system

* it is composed of words, sounds, sentences, etc.
* can define words, make judgements about grammatically

Adulthood language development

expanded vocabulary, refine pragmatics

pragmatics

rules for specifying how language is used appropriately in different social contexts

What does it mean to refine pragmatics

alter the way you talk about something based on situation

What does learning theory account for

phonology and semantics

What does learning theory not account for

syntax or novelty

True or False

children are typically reinforced about the truth of their statements rather than being grammatically correct

true

How language develops according to nativists

language acquisition device (LAD)

Chomsky

inborn mechanisms in brain

universality of stages and errors

genetic evidence from twin studies

What is language acquisition device (LAD)

areas of the brain that are activated by language

an innate brain function that sifts through language, applies the universal rules, and begins tailoring the system to the specifics of the language spoken in the young child’s environment

What does it mean by inborn mechanism in the brain in the nativist approach

identifies features and rules of a language

* some brain regions are focused on language
* but Broca’s and Wenicke’’s areas do other things to

Example of what an issue with the Broca area would be

difficulty to speak language but can understand it perfectly fine

Example of what an issue with the Wernicke’s area would be

takes away language comprehension but they can produce fluent sentences (important for semantics)

What does it mean by universality of stages and errors in nativist approach

culture independent

progress through the same sequences at roughly similar ages, and they even make the same kinds of errors

What does it mean by genetic evidence from Twin studies

mono (identical twins) more similar in language abilities than dizygotic twins

At what age has use of syntax been found

as young as 2 years old

How language develops with the interactionist approach

both nature and nurture are critical

* development of language depends on, or correlates with the development of other competences
* perceptual, motor, cognitive, social, emotional
* eg: production of words is preceded by use of gestures

Mastery Motivation

the tendency to independently persist in solving a challenging problem or mastering a skill

True or False

Mastery motivation is typical for an infant

true

What characteristics do infants have that aid them is mastery motivation

curious, active explorers

True or False

Individual differences in motivation exist

True

people lose motivation

What must parents provide for mastery motivation

sensory stimulation, responsive environment

need to provide activity for kids

Achievement motivation by age 7 types

mastery orientation and learned helplessness

Mastery Orientation

typical of higher achievers

success- caused by internal factors (withing themselves, I can figure it out)

failure- internal factors (I didn’t study hard enough)

learning goals- learning for learning’s sake

learned helplessness definition

a tendency to avoid challenges and to cease trying when they experience failure, based on the belief that they can do little to improve

learned helplessness

typical of lower achievers

success- caused by external attributions (luck)

failure- internal and stable (I’m Dumb)

performance goals (I want to look good)

What does it show about students with learning goals compared to performance goals

Students motivated by learning goals reliably perform better than those motivated by performance goals

True or False

Providing children with positive feedback can sometimes hurt their motivation and learning…

True

Cimpian, Arce, Markman, and Dweck (2007) experiment

involved 4 year olds and used puppet to represent teachers and students and the child puppet drew pictures. They then asked the students to put themselves in the kid puppets shoes

Then gave feedback and then drew 2 more objects with mistakes and teacher then corrected them and pointed it out to gauge the students reactions

also asked them self-evaluating questions and persistence questions

Cimpian, Arce, Markman, and Dweck (2007) experimenter feedback after first drawing

some got you are a good drawer and others got you did a good job drawing

Cimpian, Arce, Markman, and Dweck (2007) self- evaluation questions

•Question a: ‘‘Do you like the apple that you drew, or do you not like it?’’

•Question b: ‘‘Did what happened in the apple story make you feel happy or sad?’’

•Question c: ‘‘Do you feel like you were good at drawing or not good at drawing?’’

•Question d: ‘‘Did everything that happened in the apple story make you feel like you were a good boy/girl or not a good boy/ girl?’’

Cimpian, Arce, Markman, and Dweck (2007) persistence questions

•Question e: Would the child prefer to work again on an un- successful or successful previous drawing?

•Question f: ‘‘If you had a chance to do something tomorrow, would you draw or would you do something else?’’

•Questions g and h: Does the child desire to go back and fix the bad drawings?

Cimpian, Arce, Markman, and Dweck (2007) results

When criticized, children who had been told they were ‘‘good drawers’’ were more likely than those who had been told they ‘‘did a good job drawing’’ to denigrate their skill, feel sad, avoid the unsuccessful drawings and even drawing in general, and fail to generate strategies to repair their mistake. When asked what he would do after the teacher’s criticism, one child said, ‘‘Cry. I would do it for both of them. Yeah, for the wheels and the ears.’’

Children who were told they had done a good job had less extreme emotional reactions and better strategies for correcting their mistakes.

Cimpian, Arce, Markman, and Dweck (2007) conclusion

Generic praise implies there is a stable ability that underlies performance; subsequent mistakes reflect on this ability and can therefore be demoralizing.

True or False

Teacher’s views about learning effect how they behave toward students and students notice

true

Rattan, Good, Dweck (2012) experiment

Assessed (college) teachers’ belief that math performance was:

* A fixed trait (entity theory)
* based on effort (incremental theory).
* Whether they would engage in comforting the student (e.g., “Math isn’t for everyone”)


* Whether they would engage in unhelpful strategies (e.g., less homework).

Then teachers were asked their opinion of a student who got a 65% on a math exam.

* “What % of their score is based on a lack of math intelligence?”

Rattan, Good, Dweck (2012) feedback types

Comfort: “Math isn’t for everyone”

Control: “I care about your grade.”

Strategy: “I’m going to challenge you more.”

Rattan, Good, Dweck (2012) Results

Showed that students know when a teacher has an entity theory

Also showed students motivation is highest for strategy feedback and lowest for comfort feedback

Contributions to Achievement motivation

student contributions, school contributions, parent contributions

Student contributions for achievement motivation

young children have high confidence because they do not fully believe that ability is a stable trait meanwhile older children tend to shift towards performance goals

* school and belief of ability as a trait

School contributions for achievement motivation

focus on performances (grades)

parent contributions for achievement motivation

foster mastery motivation (learning goals)

Mastery motivation and old age

doesn’t decline with older age

learning to read characteristics

alphabetic principle

phonological and semantic knowledge predicts later reading ability

phonological awareness

the sensitivity to the sound system of language that enables them to segment spoken words into sounds or phonemes

alphabetic principle

printed words related to sounds

phonological awareness - decoding

* ability to segment words into sounds

Can we read scrambled text

yes, although it is harder for us to do so because reading works by decoding the sounds of each letter and letter combination

Skilled vs unskilled readers eye movements

Skilled readers make shorter fixations, fewer fixations, and fewer regressions (look backs)

Skilled reading comprehenders

ground (link) words to real or imaginary referents

* comprehension is more than just sounding out words

Reading changes in older age

read more slowly, make more fixations, make more regressions (look backs)

however comprehension accuracy does not change

Radvansky et al (2001) experiment

did memory comprehension tests of a short story

Radvansky et al (2001) memory tests

surface level- exact wording

textbase/concepts- remember concepts in sentence

situation/inference- can infer (or remember) the causes of a person’s behavior, or why an event happened

Radvansky et al (2001) results

found comprehension is persevered in old age and did best in inference test and worst in surface level test

Language learning only partially explained by learning theories and nativist theories

Learning theories: Phonology and semantics

Nativist theories: Syntax

Language abilities relatively intact in old age

Comprehension of what a story is about is preserved

Memory for exact wording and sentence-level concepts is reduced

Basic reading mechanics (eye movements) slow down

What is intelligence

Goal-orientated- conscious and deliberate rather than automatic

adaptive- ability to identify and solve problems

creativity

ability to produce novel responses appropriate in context and valued by others. The products are both original and meaningful

What is the general consensus among experts on the definition of intelligence?

1) there is a general ability factor that affects how well we do on a range of tasks

2) there are a few broad categories of intelligence that can be distinguished

3) there are specific abilities that help in specific tasks

Is IQ stable? What are some methods to improve IQ in children?

IQ is stable but can show some change throughout childhood

\
nutrition in infancy (DHA)

early education interventions (for low SES)

cognitive stimulation

preschool

Why might IQ decline in older age for some individuals and not for others?

Because of physical health declines (Cardiovascular), cognitive impairments and dementia

inactive vs active social life

mental health

Psychometric approach to intelligence

intelligence is a trait or a set of traits that characterizes some people to a greater extent than others.

a trait that can be identified and measured

a single attribute = g

What can a high g suggest

pretty good at a lot of things/multiple subjects, especially if you try

Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities

•Numerical ability – math reasoning

•Word (verbal) fluency

•Verbal meaning - vocabulary

•Inductive reasoning

•Spatial ability – ability to navigate in the environment

•Associative memory – ability to associate 2 concepts

•Perceptual speed

Fluid intelligence

using your mind in new flexible ways

used to solve novel problems

skills: reasoning, seeing relationships, inference

ability to use your mind actively to solve new problems without applying prior knowledge.

How does fluid intelligence change with age

decreases as we enter old age (directly related to working memory)

Crystallized intelligence

knowledge from experiences (learned)

general information, vocabulary, etc.

useful for dealing with familiar sorts of problems

* jeopardy

use of knowledge acquired through schooling and other life experiences

How does crystallized intelligence change with age

it remains stable or slight increases as we enter older age

Correlations of fluid and crystallized intelligence with age

crystallized r= .064

fluid r= -.561

What do Wechsler intelligence scales measure

IQ

How did the psychomatic approach measure intelligence

as a score on a standardized test (IQ)

100 is average with 68% falling between 85 - 115

Is intelligence better considered as multiple independent factors

Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences

but it lacked support and data

most argued that many intellectual abilities are related and can be grouped together

Gardner theory of multiple intelligences

rejected the idea that intelligence can be captured by one number (IQ).

8 types of intelligence that are independent of one another

1) Linguistic

2) Logical-mathematical

3) Musical 

4) Spatial

5) Bodily-kinesthetic

6) Interpersonal  

7) Intrapersonal

8) Naturalist