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Pulmonary ventilation
• Bulk flow of air (movement of fluid)
• Gases moved to exchange areas
External respiration
• Diffusion (random motion of molecules)
• From lungs → blood
Transport of gases
• Bulk flow of blood (movement of fluid)
• In blood → tissues
Internal respiration
• Diffusion (random motion of molecules)
• Tissue gas use and production
External nose (nasus)
• Nostrils (nares)
• Main entrance at rest
Conchae
Scroll-like projections into cavity
• Inferior, middle & superior concha
• Create air turbulence
Respiratory mucosa
• Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
• Scattered goblet cells
Mucous & serous glands
- In underlying connective tissue (lamina propria)
- Numerous presence
- Secrete ~ 1 quart/day
- Mucus traps small particles
Cilia
- Move mucus toward throat
- Mucus swallowed & digested
- Sluggish when cold (thus runny nose)
Hyaline cartilage
• Forms 20 C-shaped rings
• Give strength & flexibility
Mucosa
- Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
- Contain goblet cells
Submucosa
- Connective tissue layer
- Contains seromucous glands
- Produce mucus “sheets”
- Cilia move mucus up (1-2 cm/min)
Smoking effects
• Paralyzes (eventually destroys) cilia
• No mucus movement to throat
• Moved by coughing instead
Primary (main) bronchi
• Right & left
• Branch from trachea before reaching lung lobes
Secondary (lobar) bronchi
Branch inside lobes
Tertiary bronchi
Divide repeatedly
• Progressively dec. in size
Bronchioles
< 1 mm diameter
Bronchioles: Epithelium
Simple cuboidal epithelium
Bronchioles: Smooth muscle
Abundant (no cartilage)
Terminal bronchioles
Smallest conducting airways
Respiratory bronchioles
dec. in smooth muscle
• Some alveoli (gas exchange)
Alveolar ducts
Diffuse smooth muscle rings (cells)
• Connective tissue fibers
• Outpocketing alveoli
Alveolar sacs
Groups of alveoli
Alveoli
Gas exchange surface
Inc. surface area
Thin diffusion distance to blood
Interconnected by alveolar pores
Alveolar epithelium: Type I Cells
Simple squamous epithelial
• Form alveolar lining
Alveolar epithelium: Basal lamina
Thin connective tissue layer
Alveolar epithelium: Type II cells
Cuboidal
• Located among type I cells
• Secrete surfactant
Alveolar epithelium: Macrophages
• Move freely over alveolar surface
• Scavenge and phagocytose debris
Air-blood barrier
• Type I cell
• Basal lamina
• Capillary endothelial cell
• Total thickness ~ 2 m
Capillaries
Form “cobweb” around alveoli
Shared basal lamina w/ type I cells
Radius effects (Law of Laplace)
• dec. in radius → inc. surface tension forces
• Tends to collapse alveoli
Surfactant
• Lipoprotein secreted by lung
• Reduces surface tension
• Decreases work of inflation
Lung gross anatomy: shape
Paired, cone-shaped
Lung gross anatomy: Hilus
• Pulmonary blood vessel entry & exit
• One for pulmonary artery & vein
Lung gross anatomy: Symmetry
Lungs differ in shape & size
Thoracic cavity: Pleura sac
• Fluid filled sac
• Surrounds each lung
Thoracic cavity: Visceral pleura
Against lung
Thoracic cavity: Parietal pleura
Against chest wall
Thoracic cavity: Pleural space
Inside pleural sac
Intrapleural pressure
• Negative pressure
• Holds lung open
Intrapulmonary pressure
Pressure inside lungs
@ Rest
Pip < Palv = Patm
-4 < 0 = 0
Inhale
Pip < Palv < Patm
-6 < -3 < 0
• Active (muscles contract)
• Diaphragm, external intercostals
Exhale
Pip < Palv > Patm
-3 < 3 > 0
• Passive
• May use diaphragm, internal intercostals
What happens in Pneumothorax?
Pip = Palv = Patm
Compliance
• Stretchiness (V/P)
• inc. by surfactant
Elasticity
• Tendency to retain shape
• Opposite of compliance
What happens in Emphysema (obstructive)?
• Lung tissue degenerates
• inc. in compliance
• Flimsy airways
• Collapse while exhaling
What happens in Fibrotic lung (restrictive)?
• Fibrous tissue permeates lung
• inc. in elasticity
• Limited lung volume
Static: Tidal volume (TV)
amt. of air in an average breath (0.5 L)
Static: Total lung capacity (TLC)
max air held by lungs (~6 L)
Static: Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)
max. insp. on top of tidal insp. (~ 3 L)
Static: Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
exp. ability in addition to normal exp. (~1.2 L)
Static: Residual volume (RV)
air in lungs following max. exp. (~1 L)
Static: Forced vital capacity (FVC)
max exp. following max insp. (~ 4.8 L)
Static: Functional residual capacity (FRC)
pool of air in lungs during TV (~2.4 L)
Dynamic: Forced expiratory volume (FEV1.0)
max. amount of air that can be exp. in 1 sec. following max insp. (~85% of FVC)
Vital capacity
Difference: max. inhalation & max. exhalation
Residual volume
Air remaining in lungs following max. exhalation
Ventilation
VE (L/min) = TV (L/breath) * F (breaths/min)
Alveolar ventilation (VA)
VA = (TV – DS) x frequency
• Breath portion stops in conducting airways
• Dead space (DS)
• ~ 0.15L of 0.5L TV
Atmospheric pressure (Patm)
760 mmHg
Atmospheric gas fractions
• 21% is O2
• 79% is N2
• 0.03% is CO2
Gas pressure (Pgas)
Pgas = gas fraction x Patm
PO2
= 0.21 x 760 = 159 mmHg
PN2
= 0.79 x 760 = 601 mmHg
Solid Diffusion
Determined by concentration gradient
Gases
Determined by gas pressure gradient
Pressure in alveoli determines Pressure in blood
Henry’s Law
Pressure of gas in solution is proportional to
pressure of gas over the solution
Pressures
Alveolar Pgas determines blood Pgas
Gas solubility
• O2 not very soluble in plasma
• CO2 is 30x more soluble
Temperature
inc. temperature → dec. in solubility
Hemoglobin (Hb)
• inc. O2 content of blood
• Dissolved O2 determines PO2
What is Hb built of…?
4 protein subunits (globin)
• 4 heme groups (bind O2)
• Binds 4 O2
Hb binding of O2
• Hb affinity for O2 affected by number bound
• As PO2 inc., Hb releases O2
• First falls off, others fall off more easily
O2 dissociation curve
• % Hb-O2 saturation vs. PO2
• Sigmoid (S) shape
• Shifts with varying Hb affinity for O2
• Due to cooperative O2 binding to Hb
As pH lvl inc. …
O2 affinity (Bohr effect) also inc. and vice versa
2,3–BPG
• Stabilizes deoxyHb
• inc. O2 affinity
As Temperature inc. …
O2 affinity dec.
Myoglobin
• In striated muscle
• Only one heme
• High O2 affinity
• Enables intracellular O2 storage
Dissolved CO2 (~10%)
• CO2 exits tissues
• Dissolves in plasma
Carbaminohemoglobin (~20%)
• CO2 enters RBC from plasma
• Attaches to amino group on Hb
Plasma bicarbonate (HCO3-) ~ 70%
• CO2 enters RBC from plasma
• Reacts with H2O via carbonic anhydrase
• HCO3- exits RBC to plasma
• Cl- enters RBC (chloride shift)
At the lung: PCO2 in lung < PCO2 in blood
CO2 + H2O ←→ H2CO3 ←→ (H+) + (HCO3-)
1. CO2 comes out of solution in plasma
2. Carbaminohemoglobin CO2 + Hb
3. HCO3- goes back through pathway
Respiratory acidosis
(inc. CO2) + H2O ←→ H2CO3 →→ (inc. H+) + HCO3-
Hypoventilation
Respiratory alkalosis
(dec. CO2) + H2O ←← H2CO3 ←→ (dec. H+) + HCO3-
Hyperventilation
Metabolic acidosis
(inc. CO2) + H2O ←← H2CO3 ←→ (inc. H+) + HCO3-
• Ingestion of acids (amino acids, ascorbic acid)
• Alcohol ingestion
• Intense exercise (lactic acid)
Resp. Compensation: Hyperventilation
Metabolic alkalosis
(dec. CO2) + H2O ←→ H2CO3 →→ (dec. H+) + HCO3-
• Vomiting from stomach
• Ingestion of alkaloids
Resp. Compensation: Hypoventilation
Medullary respiratory centers
Locus of signal
Dorsal respiratory group
• Inspiratory neurons (fire during inspiration)
• Expiratory neurons (fire during expiration)
Ventral respiratory group (VRG)
Also has insp. & exp. neurons
pre-Bötzinger complex
• In VRG
• Thought to be rhythm generation center
Pontine respiratory group
Influences medullary respiratory centers
• Exact role uncertain
Peripheral
• Carotid body & aortic arch
• Stimulated by dec. O2, dec. pH, inc. CO2
Central (medulla)
Sensitive to dec. pH (inc. CO2)
Sensitivity
• Blood PO2 must be ~ 60 mmHg before VE inc.
• Inc. PCO2 by 2 mmHg will dramatically Inc. VE
Lung stretch receptors
• Hering-Breuer reflex
• Lung inflation inhibits inspiration
Proprioceptors
Muscle & joint
Sensory receptors
Touch, temperature, pain
Higher centers
Voluntary control