Intro to Psychology: Chapter 6

Learning

-relatively enduring change in behavior, one that results from experience

-occurs when animals benefit from experience so that their behavior is better adapted to the environment

Classical Conditioning (Pavlovian Conditioning)

occurs when we learn that two types of events go together

-ex: watching a scary movie and our hearts beat faster

Operant Conditioning

occurs when we learn that a behavior leads to a particular outcome

-ex: studying leads to better grades

B.F. Skinner very interested in this type of learning

Introspection

verbal reports are used to assess mental states

ex: dream analysis and free association

John B. Watson

founded behaviorism

Behaviorism

-school of thought based on the belief that animals and humans are born with the potential to learn just about anything

-environment and its associated effects on animals were the sole determinants of learning

Tabula rasa

-"blank slate"

-John Locke's idea which states that infants are born knowing nothing and that all knowledge is acquired through sensory experiences

Ivan Pavlov

-Won Nobel Prize in 1904 for work on the digestive system

-interested in the salivary reflex and measured the amount of saliva produced when he placed various types of food into a dog's mouth

Neutral Stimulus

stimulus unrelated to the salivary reflex, such as ringing a bell

Conditioning Trial

a neutral stimulus is combined with a stimulus that produces the reflex

Critical Trials

neutral stimulus is presented alone and the reflex is measured

Unconditioned Response

Response that does not have to be learned, such as a reflex

Unconditioned Stimulus

a stimulus that elicits a response, such as a reflex, without ay prior learning

Conditioned Stimulus

A stimulus that elicits a response only after learning has taken place

Conditioned Response

A response that has been learned

Acquisition

the gradual formation of an association between the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli

Contiguity

stimuli occur together in time

Extinction

a process in which the conditioned response is weakened when the conditioned stimulus is repeated without the unconditioned stimulus

Extinguished

conditioned stimulus no longer predicts the unconditioned stimulus

Spontaneous Recovery

a process in which a previous extinguished response emerges following presentation of the conditioned stimulus

Stimulus Generalization

occurs when stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus produce the conditioned response

Stimulus Discrimination

a differentiation between two similar stimuli when only one of them is consistently associated with the unconditioned stimulus

Second-Order Conditioning

-when a conditioned stimulus becomes directly associated with other stimuli associated with the unconditioned stimulus

-often implicit

Phobia

an acquired fear out of proportion to the real threat of an object or of a situation

Fear Conditioning

when an animal is conditioned to fear neutral objects

Amygdala

without this structure, fear conditioning will not happen

"Little Albert"

-at nine months, he was presented with neutral objects: a white rat, a rabbit, a dog, a monkey, costume masks and a ball of white wood; displayed a natural curiosity, but no overt emotional responses

-at eleven months, as they presented the white rat and he reached for it, Watson smashed a hammer into an iron bar, producing a loud clanging sound; this sound scared the child and caused him to withdraw and hide his face

-eventually when only presented with the rat, he would begin to cry

Counterconditioning

exposing people to small doses of the feared stimulus while having them engage in a pleasurable task

Systematic Desensitization

-Joseph Wolpe

-formal treatment based on counterconditioning

-after patients are taught how to relax their muscles, they are asked to imagine the feared object or situation while continuing to use the relaxation exercises; eventually patients are exposed to the feared stimulus while they are relaxing

Withdrawal

the unpleasant state of tension and anxiety that occurs when addicts stop using drugs

Conditioned Food Aversion

association between eating a novel food and getting sick

Biological Preparedness

animals are genetically programmed to fear specific objects

Cognitive Perspective

increasing consideration of mental processes such as prediction and expectancy

Rescorla-Wagner Model

a cognitive model of classical conditioning; it states that the strength of the CS-US association is determined by the extent to which the unconditioned stimulus is unexpected

Instrumental Conditioning (Operant)

we learn that behaving in certain ways leads rewards and not behaving in other ways keeps us from punishment

Law of Effect

Thorndike's general theory of learning: Any behavior that leads to a "satisfying state of affairs" will more likely occur again, and any behavior that leads to an "annoying state of affairs" will less likely occur

Reinforcer

a stimulus that follows a response and increases the likelihood that the response will be repeated

Shaping

a process of operant conditioning; it involves reinforcing behaviors that are increasingly similar to the desired behavior

Premack Principle

a more valued activity can be used to reinforce the performance of a less valued activity

-ex: Eat your spinach and then you'll get dessert

Positive Reinforcement

the increase in the probability of a behavior's being repeated following the administration of a stimulus

Negative Reinforcement

the increase in the probability of a behavior's being repeated through the removal of a stimulus

Positive Punishment

punishment that occurs with the administration of a stimulus and thus decreases the probability of a behavior's recurring

Negative Punishment

punishment that occurs with the removal of a stimulus and thus decreases the probability of a behavior's recurring

Continuous Reinforcement

a type of learning in which the desired behavior is reinforced each time it occurs

Partial Reinforcement

a type of learning in which behavior is reinforced intermittently

Ratio Schedule

a schedule in which reinforcement is based on the number of times the behavior occurs

Interval Schedule

a schedule in which reinforcement is available after a specific unit of time

Fixed Schedule

schedule in which reinforcement is consistently provided upon each occurrence

Variable Schedule

a schedule in which reinforcement is applied at different rates or at different times

Partial-Reinforcement Extinction Effect

the greater persistence of behavior under partial reinforcement than under continuous reinforcement

Behavior Modification

the use of operant-conditioning techniques to eliminate unwanted behaviors and replace them with desirable ones

Cognitive Map

a visual/spatial mental representation of an environment

Latent Learning

learning that takes place int he absence of reinforcement

Insight learning

a form of problem solving in which a solution suddenly emerges after either a period of inaction or contemplation of the problem

Memes

a unit of knowledge transferred within a culture

Observational Learning

learning that occurs when behaviors are acquired or modified

Modeling

the imitation of behavior through observational learning

Vicarious Learning

learning that occurs when people learn the consequences of an action by observing others being rewarded or punished for performing the action

Mirror Neurons

neurons that are activated during observation of others performing an action

Long-term Potentiation

the strengthening of a synaptic connection so that postsynaptic neurons are more easily activated