Environmental Policy Mid-Term

Role of science in environmental policy making

Policymakers rely on scientific expertise to make educated decisions about policies, and their impacts on the environment, human health, and other issues. --> required to identify problems and aid in solving them.

Scientific consensus on climate change

That climate change is real and affects us all. It’s driven by human activity and has created a rapid increase in average temperature.

Why was the IPCC established?

To provide policymakers with regular scientific assessments on climate change, its implications and potential future risks, as well as to put forward adaptation and mitigation options. Developed in 1988 by the WMO and UNEP.

What does the IPCC do?

The IPCC assesses published literature and author teams use defined language to characterize their degree of certainty in assessment conclusions.

How does a IPPC report get approved?

The first draft is created and reviewed by experts. The second order draft is created considering review comments and then reviewed again. The final draft and the summary for policymakers are given to the government. The government reviews and gives comments then they both meet in a plenary session to approve the summary line by line as well as accept the report.

What is Carbon Capture?

Carbon capture takes CO2 from the atmosphere and stores it underground.  not a real and feasible invention.

What is the difference between point-source and direct air capture?

Point-source: capture co2 from its source, for example, a coal powerplant.

Direct air capture: extract co2 directly from the atmosphere at any location.

What are the four types of goods? Are they excludable and rivalrous?

Private Goods: Rivalrous and excludable

Common Goods: Rivalrous and non-excludable

Club Goods: Non-rivalrous and excludable

Public Goods: Non-rivalrous and non-excludable

What is the Prisoner’s Dilemma?

When NE does not guarantee the actors the most optimal outcome. The two players are in suboptimal NE. Their best move is to betray each other. It is also possible to increase one’s playoff without harming the other player.

What is the Nash equilibrium?

It is a set of actions where all players have no unilateral incentive to deviate or choose another action.

What is Collective Action?

Rational individuals may not contribute to collective action, even if they benefit from the public good as the individual cost might outweigh their perceived individual benefit.

Increase in group size = increase in incentive to free ride.

What are three ways to address collective action?

Small groups

Selective benefits

Coercive mechanisms

What is free riding?

Letting other people make the changes to increase public good but not changing yourself to help or trying to assist.

How do we approach addressing the Tragedy of the Commons?

Depending on the situation different institutional arrangements are needed, state-centric or privatization. Both have their pros and cons. The best way is to use local communities’ institutional settings to manage common-pool-resources.

Aklin & Mildenberger’s argument?

Climate policymaking is hindered by distributive conflicts.  disagreements within countries about who bears the costs and receives benefits of climate policies.

Special interest group politics and balance of power between policy opponents and proponents affect the environmental policy outcomes.

Kennard & Schnakenberg’s counterargument?

The lack of reciprocity is evidence of lack of solution to collective action, not the collective action problem itself. Some players will cooperate while others defect or all players defect.

 What is a rational actor? What would be proper rational action?

Everyone tries to maximize their own utility or interests. Proper rational actions include picking the choice that maximizes individual benefit.

What is the benefit-cost analysis (BCA)?

Compares the benefits of each measure to its costs. Benefits are measured as the sum of individuals’ willingness to pay for the changes it may induce. They point decision makers to the most efficient or cost-effective policies

What are command and control regulations or state-centric approaches? What are some examples?

The government sets goals and enforces regulatory standards. Often inflexible.

Performance standards: max/min allowable level of a given metric.

Technology standards: prescribes one type of method or actual equipment.

What is a market-based solution?

Market-based solutions use economic incentives and market principles.

What is the Cap-and-Trade market-based solution?

After setting a total amount of pollution emission level, the government can distribute permits to emit pollution and allow firms to trade, essentially creating a market for pollution permits.

What is the Tax market-based solution?

A specific price on pollution and allows firms to decide how much to pollute in response. Uncertain the total amount of pollution that will result.

What is NEPA?

Created by Nixon, it is the National Environmental Policy Act. It required federal agencies to assess the environmental effects of their proposed actions prior to making decisions. The act also informs the public about potential environmental impacts of a proposed government action.

What is the Clean Air Act and what does it impact?

Comprehensive federal law regulating air emissions from stationery and mobile sources. It also calls on states and EPA to regulate air pollutants. The act monitors six major pollutants.

What is the Clean Water Act and what does it impact or change?

Calls on the EPA to eliminate pollution from surface waters, referred to as “waters of the United States.” The act ensures that all waters are fishable and swimmable, while having zero water pollution discharge. It also requires companies to obtain a permit before polluting the waterway. States are also required to identify harmful nonpoint source pollution and manage it.  

What is the Endangered Species Act and what does it impact or change?

The act was created to conserve endangered and threatened species and their habitats. It also requires that “all Federal departments and agencies shall seek to conserve endangered species and threatened species” and that “Federal agencies shall cooperate with State and local agencies to resolve water resource issues in concert with conservation of endangered species.” Key actors are FWS and NOAA.

What environmental policies were carried out during Nixon’s presidency and what impact did he have on the environment?

Nixon established the EPA as the threat of national environmental crisis increased awareness, especially as rivers began to catch fire. The growing public concern over pollution and other environmental issues pushed Nixon to create a bunch of environmental policies.

What did Jimmy Carter do during his presidency that prioritized the environment?

Carter created the department of energy and set a goal of producing 20% of the nation’s energy from renewable sources by 2000. He also created the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act, protected 157m acres of land through national parks and conservation areas, and the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act, hazardous waste sites are investigated and cleaned up.

How did Reagan’s presidency change environmental policy and regulations?

He believed that environmental regulations were too strict on the economy. As a result, his administration tried to reduce government regulation and rely more on the private sector and market-based solutions. Deregulate, de-fund, and devolve.

Launched cap and trade program for sulfur and nitrogen oxides.

What is political polarization?

It is the growing ideological divide between political groups and where parties take increasingly more extreme positions.

What is the effect of political polarization on environmental issues and perspective?

More frequent changes regarding environmental policy, creating a program and then it becomes defunded by next president. As a result, local and state governments are getting more involved. There is also an increase in standstill regarding making decisions about serious problems. The role of the president and executive branches has increased as well which creates an instability.

First step of the policy cycle?

Problem identification and definition. Problems get identified through resource and media attention, but not everyone agrees on what constitutes a problem. 

Second step of the policy cycle?

Agenda Setting. Issues reach the political agenda through investment to promote an issue, crises elevate issues, and interest groups/public outcry. Climate change was very slow to be recognized. 

John Kingdon’s Multiple Streams Theory

Three separate, but independent streams flow continuously through the political system. One: Problems/evidence of the existence of problems. Two: Policy/ available policies to deal with them (proposals). Three: Political/political climate and willingness to act.

Third step of the policy cycle?

Policy Formation. It involves both technical analysis and political calculations. Formation considers: goals, causes, tools, targets, and implementation. Can be formulated as laws, provision of services, economics, and public campaigns. 

Fourth step of the policy cycle?

Policy Legitimization. Defined as giving legal force to decisions or authorizing policy action. Passage of legislation doesn’t guarantee policy legitimization. 

Fifth step of the policy cycle?

Policy implementation or policies enacted by the government are put into effect by agencies. However, they can be vague resulting in various interpretations, regulations, and enforcement of standards. This is the stage where lobbying increases the most.

Sixth step of the policy cycle?

Policy evaluation. This is where policies are measured on their overall effectiveness and cost-effectiveness. Where policies are sustained, changed, or revoked, and or undergo evaluations. 

Is the policy cycle a linear process?

No, multiple steps can happen all at once or can never make it past certain steps.

What political party is considered more pro-environmental policy?

Democrats

Based on previous data, what does the future of partisanship divide of environmental politics look like?

The political divide will become increasingly more spilt as time progress.

What are some changes suggested by Karol on partisanship (2019)?

One: Reversed trend towards increasing partisanship on these issues.

Two: The current party divide is maintained, but policy debate moves substantially in one direction.

if public concern about the environment increases, republican politicians may be willing to endorse more environmental policies.

What is the cause of political polarization in environmental policy?

The effect of lobbyists and increasingly extreme players joining political parties.

What are the consequences of political polarization in environmental policy?

Constant changes in policy and in ability to land on common ground on important issues.

What is the structure of the US Congress?

Congress consists of the house and senate (bicameral structure)

How is the House different from the Senate:

1. 435 members

2. term of 2 years

3. minimum age is 25

4. more rules and formal

5. representation is by size of population

How is the Senate different from the House?

1. 100 members

2. term of 6 years

3. minimum age is 30

4. few rules and formal 

5. representation is equal

What is constituency and how is it different in the House and Senate?

Constituency means “a body of voters in a specified area who elect a representative to a legislative body.” House is closest to the general public, but tied to their districts.

House and Senate differences impact on environmental policy?

Each chamber acts independently of each other and can consists of majorities in different parties. They also share authority with the president on federal policy regarding the environment. 

What is congressional oversight?

Oversight is closely related to policy implementation, but is often time-consuming and difficult. Only when the reward is high, members tend to be more engaged.

When is congressional oversight needed?

• When there is a divided government (split partisan control of the presidency and at least one house of Congress)

• When Congress needs to respond to outside groups to which the White

House has been insufficiently responsive

• When Congress seeks to protect favored agencies

• When staff resources are available

• When there is publicity over and evidence of malfeasance in the agencies

Congressional Oversight: Fire alarm

Reactive and the most common. It is more politically rewarding with minimum investment of time and resources.

Congressional Oversight: Police patrol

Proactive and requires more frequent, direct, regular, and systematic monitoring. 

What are technical support agencies and why are they useful?

These agencies help provide a reliable source of quality information and analysis that allow legislators to deal with complex or conflicting scientific information. They are essential for quality policymaking, but the public worries if they have too much or too little information for solid policymaking.

Advantages of having a committee system?

Allows for legislators to focus on the matters of high importance for their district/state and results in more efficient and contributes to a higher level of expertise accumulated by the legislators. Especially as they are assigned committees by their party, interest, and requirements. They also decide what bills are to be considered at the senate and house floor.

Disadvantages of having a committee system?

The committees contribute to a dispersion of power which results in a fragmented approach to public policy. The process is also very time consuming and can have biases in decision making due to the party of the chair of committee.

What is policy gridlock and when do they occur?

A policy gridlock is an inability to resolve conflicts. They occur when: When there is a sharp divide between the Democrats and Republicans, When the White House and Congress are divided, When the public preference is unclear, When the political leadership is weak or ineffectual.

What are the implications of a policy gridlock?

There is no consensus so current policies continue. Gridlocks leave environmental issues unsolved, failure to renew programs create a drift in policy and administration, ineffective congressional oversight.

What is the effect of political polarization in congress?

• Legislative gridlock is common

• Short-term economic and political consequences tend to dominate the decision-making process of the legislators

• Congress can effectively limit efforts by the White House to pursues stronger environmental policies

• presidents rely on their executive power to pursue their environmental policy agenda

• Only congress can redesign federal environmental policy that successfully addresses complex problems.

What is an anti-environmental rider and why are they popular?

The are a provision attached to an appropriations bill that strives to weaken or repeal existing environmental protections. They are popular as they allow legislators to please certain interest groups without creating public outcry.

What are special interest groups and how do they effect policy making?

A interest group is an organized group of individuals that make policy-related appeals to the government. They provide information and or money to policymakers to pursue preferred policies leading to an equal distribution in power as politicians favor rich and corporate interests. They can also create interest group before the enactment of a policy and after during the implementation stage.

What is the iron triangle?

Interest groups give money —> congress: funding and political support—> bureaucracy: lax regulations and special favors.

how does lobbying affect environmental policy?

Firms and industries use lobbying to (1) transmit information; (2) buy access to

legislators – either to persuade or to provide legislative assistance. Anti-environmental lobbying efforts are stronger. Lobbying also leads to government agencies being dominated by private corporations instead of solid policymaking.

What is the purpose of campaign contributions and what are major three? 

A powerful tool for interest groups to exercise their influence. They help get candidates who share similar views into office. Other purposes include: investment (quid pro quo), political participation (consumption value), and buying access to legislators (risk hedging). 

What is the fog of enactment and it’s four factors (Stokes 2020)?

Stokes argues that interest groups play a key role in policy change, especially after policy implementation. The fog is the period of uncertainty and ambiguity during policy implementation where interest groups organize to undermine original intent.

Factors: 1. Novel policies that have not been implemented widely elsewhere. 2. Major reforms that involve complex and detailed rules 3. Policies in technical domains 4. Policy areas that have overlapping jurisdictions across the state and federal government.

What are the three consequences of anti-environment interest groups?

1. Weaken environmental policies

2. Increased party polarization

3. Public opinion shifts due to doubt

who are the expected winner and losers (Kim, Urpelainen and Yang (2016))?

Expected winners from climate change: renewable energy and natural gas users as they lobby individually for specific provisions.

Expected Losers: Coal users

When is collective lobbying effective and who does this ((Kim, Urpelainen and Yang (2016))?

Collective action is more effective as stopping or weakening an environmental bill. The expected losers often do this so they can stop bills that cost them such as climate legislation.

When is individual lobbying more effective and who does this (Kim, Urpelainen and Yang (2016))?

Individual lobbying is more effective in increasing the private share of the benefit or securing a cut of the expected benefits. The expected winners do this method.

How did Kim, Urpelainen and Yang (2016) test their hypothesis that renewable energy and natural gas users use active individual lobbying?

To test their hypotheses, the authors examine how the fuel choice is a good predictor for lobbying activities on a series of major climate bills introduced during the 111th Congress (2009-2010).

What is the electoral connection?

Members of congress seek to bring federal funds to their constituents which advances their reelection interests. Different constituencies of the house and senate result in different preferences for distributive programs. 

What is Pork Barreling?

Pork barrel is taking federal funds for localized projects in a representative’s district to please voters and win votes.

Behaviors of Congress: Advertising

Marketing for campaigns, ribbon-cutting ceremonies, interviews, and speeches.

Behaviors of Congress: Credit Claiming

Senators represent entire states and are able to claim credit for funds relatively easily. They do this by taking credit for particularistic policies and pork barreling.

Behaviors of Congress: Position Taking

Legislators sometimes see the benefit in letting their position known. Examples include roll call votes and introducing bills that are meant to make a statement rather than get passed.

What is compensation policies and how do the affect policy?

Legislators are more willing to support carbon restrictions when workers in their districts are protected by generous unemployment insurance. They are a fiscal safety net that can buy support for policies that would otherwise be unable to pass.

What is retrospective voting?

Outcomes: voters punish politicians for damages

Action: voters reward politicians that take action

Intent: voters reward attempts to act by governors and punish those who block their actions.

What are Gasper and Reeves argument?

Voters discourage pre-action to natural disasters as they believe it wastes money, but support and reward post natural disaster action. They determined that natural disasters act as political tests on leadership and crisis management. The faster and higher quality a policymaker showcases through can action after a crisis can influence popularity and election outcomes. Intent is very important!

What are Gasper and Reeves findings?

They determined that voters are responsive: have a direct response to the absolute state of the world and are attentive: assign praise or blame based on the authority and actions of policymakers.