Perception, Language & Cognition – Review Vocabulary

Vocabulary flashcards summarizing key terms from the lecture on perception, sensation, language, and cognition.

Perception

The cognitive process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to give it meaning.

Bottom-up Processing

Perceptual analysis that begins with sensory receptors and builds up to the brain’s integration of sensory information.

Top-down Processing

Perceptual processing guided by prior knowledge, expectations, and experiences.

Attention

the cognitive process of selectively concentrating on one aspect of the environment while ignoring other stimuli. It plays a crucial role in perception because what we “attend to” is more likely to be perceived and processed

Selective Attention

Focusing on one aspect of the environment and filtering out the rest.

Motivation (Perception)

Motivational factors can influence perception by directing attention and influencing the interpretation of sensory information.

Sensory Abilities

Individual differences in vision, hearing, taste, touch, etc., that affect perception.

Expectations

Past experiences and expectations based on cultural or personal factors can shape how we interpret and make sense of incoming sensory information

Cognitive Load

The amount of mental effort being used; high load can reduce perceptual accuracy.

Constructivist Theory of Perception

Perception is an active process of constructing mental representations of the world based on individual experiences, expectations, and knowledge.

The Constructivist Theory of perception, influenced by the work of Jean Piaget, suggests that perception is an active process in which individuals construct their understanding of the world based on their experiences and interactions.

Ecological Theory of Perception

Perception is a direct and adaptive interaction with the environment, and the focus is on the information available in the environment for action.

The ecological theory of perception, developed by James J. Gibson, emphasizes the importance of the environment in shaping our perception. One easy example of this theory is the perception of depth and distance. According to the ecological theory, we perceive depth and distance by directly picking up on information in our environment rather than relying solely on internal cognitive processes.

Affordances

which are opportunities for action that the environment offers. In this case, the size and position of the ball in relation to the ground afford the possibility of reaching out and grasping it.

Optic Array

Gibson proposed that certain properties of the optic array, called "invariants," remain constant despite changes in the position or movement of an object.

Information Processing Theory (Perception)

Perception involves processing sensory information in a step-by-step manner, similar to the functioning of a computer.

The Information Processing Theory of perception involves comparing the mind to a computer, where information is processed in a series of stages.

Gestalt Principles

a set of rules that describe how our brains tend to organize visual elements into meaningful wholes.

Closure (Gestalt)

This principle suggests that our minds tend to fill in missing information to perceive complete and whole shapes or objects, even when parts of the information are missing. For example, if you see a circle with a small gap, your brain might perceive it as a complete circle.

Proximity (Gestalt)

Elements close to each other are perceived as belonging.

Similarity (Gestalt)

 Elements similar in size, shape, color, or other qualities are perceived as belonging together.

Continuity / Good Continuation

Preference for continuous, smooth patterns rather than abrupt changes.

Figure-Ground

Separating an object (figure) from its background (ground).

Symmetry (Gestalt)

Our brains tend to perceive objects as symmetrical and organized. If you see an arrangement of shapes, your brain may perceive them as more meaningful if they are symmetrical.

Common Fate

Elements that move together are perceived as a single group.

Trichromatic Theory of Color Vision

a scientific explanation for how humans perceive and distinguish colors. This theory suggests that the human eye has three types of color receptors, known as cones, each sensitive to a specific range of wavelengths. These three types of cones are most sensitive to short (blue), medium (green), and long (red) wavelengths of light. 

Three Types of Cones

The human eye's retina contains three types of color-sensitive cones, each tuned to a different range of wavelengths. These are often called short, medium, and long cones, corresponding to blue, green, and red light.

Color Mixing

By combining the signals from these three types of cones, our brains can perceive a wide range of colors.

Primary Colors (Vision)

The trichromatic theory implies that the three primary colors for human vision are red, green, and blue. By combining different intensities of light in these three colors, we can create the perception of a vast array of other colors

Pitch Perception

our ability to recognize and interpret different sound frequencies as distinct pitches. Pitch is a perceptual quality related to the frequency of a sound wave, and it is often associated with our perception of "high" or "low" tones in music or everyday sounds.

Frequency of Sound waves

• Pitch is closely tied to the frequency of sound waves. Higher-frequency sound waves are generally perceived as higher-pitched, and lower-frequency sound waves are perceived as lower-pitched.

• Frequency is measured in Hertz (Hz), with one Hertz equal to one cycle per second.

Pitch and Musical notes

In music, specific frequencies are associated with musical notes. For example, the A4 note is often tuned to 440 Hz. Different notes in an octave correspond to different frequencies, and this organization creates the musical scale.

Place Theory (Hearing)

 suggests that different pitches are detected based on the specific location in the cochlea where the hair cells are stimulated. High-frequency sounds activate hair cells in one region, while low-frequency sounds stimulate hair cells in another region.

Frequency Theory (Hearing)

proposes that the pitch is determined by the rate at which nerve impulses travel to the brain. In other words, the pitch corresponds to the frequency of nerve signals generated by the vibrations in the cochlea.

Cochlea

Fluid-filled spiral in the inner ear where hair cells transduce sound vibrations.

Illusion

Perceiving illusions involves the brain's attempt to make sense of sensory information, often resulting in misinterpretations or distortions of reality.

Adaptation and Habituation

The brain has a tendency to adapt to repeated stimuli or become habituated to consistent input. Illusions may take advantage of these processes, leading to changes in perception over time.

Sensory Input

Illusions begin with sensory input from the external environment. This input can be visual patterns, auditory stimuli, tactile sensations, or a combination of sensory cues.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

Stimulus that results in an innate response. (e.g., food).

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

The innate response that resulted from the UCS. (e.g., salivation).

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

A stimulus that doesn’t result in any specific response (prior to training). (e.g., bell).

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

After training, the NS becomes the CS, which will now invoke a new response.

Conditioned Response (CR)

After training, the CS will now result in the CR. The new response after training.

Language

a complex and systematic means of communication humans use, typically consisting of symbols, such as words and gestures, with agreed-upon meanings.

Behaviorist Theory of Language (B.F Skinner)

 Behaviorism suggests that language is learned through conditioning and reinforcement. According to this theory, individuals acquire language by imitating others and receiving positive reinforcement for correct language use.

Social Learning Theory (Language)

Social learning theory suggests language is acquired through observation, imitation, and modeling. Bandura emphasized the role of social interactions, with individuals learning language by observing and imitating the language use of others.

Nativist Theory (Noam Chomsky)

Chomsky proposed that humans are born with an innate ability for language acquisition. He introduced the concept of a "universal grammar" underlying all languages, suggesting that certain linguistic structures are hardwired in the human brain.

Connectionist or Neural Network Theory

This theory views language acquisition as a result of neural networks and connections forming in the brain. It emphasizes the role of experience and exposure in strengthening connections between linguistic elements. 

Interactionist Theory (Language) (Jerome Bruner, Lev Vygotsky)

Interactionist theories emphasize the interplay between biological factors and environmental influences. They highlight the role of social interaction, cultural context, and cognitive development in language acquisition.

Cognitive Theory (Language) (Jean Pidget)

Cognitive theories focus on the mental processes involved in language development. Piaget proposed that cognitive development precedes and contributes to language development, with language emerging as a tool for expressing cognitive concepts.

Critical Period Hypothesis

This hypothesis proposes a critical period in early childhood during which language acquisition is most effective. After this period, language learning becomes more challenging. The idea is associated with the work of Eric Lenneberg and others. 

Whorfian Hypothesis (Linguistic Relativity)

The Whorfian hypothesis suggests language shapes thought and perception. Different languages may influence the way speakers perceive and think about the world. This idea is named after Benjamin Lee Whorf. 

In the early stages of language development, infants engage in

reflexive communication, expressing their basic needs through cries and coos. As they progress, a noticeable shift occurs towards reflexive communication with an added element—interest in others. Babies become more attuned to the social cues around them, establishing a foundation for intentional communication and sociability

Lexicon

constitutes a language's vocabulary, comprising the words that give it life.

Grammar

steps in with a set of rules meticulously crafted to convey meaning through the effective utilization of the lexicon

Phoneme

inherent in the language — steps in with a set of rules meticulously crafted to convey meaning through the effective utilization of the lexicon

Morpheme

Smallest meaningful unit in a language.

Semantics

the art of extracting meaning from morphemes and words, partners with syntax

Syntax

which dictates how words find their place within sentences

Broca’s Area

Left frontal-lobe region crucial for speech production.

• Motor

• Frontal lobe

• Broken Words

• Speech is slow and broken

  Primarily associated with speech production and language processing. Damage to Broca's area can result in difficulties forming grammatically correct sentences, a condition known as Broca's aphasia.

Wernicke’s Area

Left temporal-lobe region important for language comprehension.

• Sensory

• Temporal lobe

• Speech is normal and excessive, but makes little sense

Mainly associated with language comprehension and understanding. Damage to Wernicke's area can lead to Wernicke's aphasia, where individuals may produce fluent but nonsensical speech.

Developmental Language Disorder

Persistent difficulty acquiring language despite normal intelligence and exposure.

Speech Sound Disorder

Trouble producing speech sounds correctly and clearly.

Language Processing Disorder

Difficulty understanding or using language appropriately in context.

Inner Speech

Silent verbal thinking used for problem-solving and planning.

Absolute Threshold

Minimum stimulation needed to detect a stimulus 50% of the time.

Difference Threshold

Smallest detectable difference between two stimuli (just noticeable difference).

Signal Detection Theory

Framework describing how we detect stimuli amid background noise.

Sensory Adaptation

Diminished sensitivity due to constant stimulation.

Rods

Retinal receptors sensitive to low light; enable night vision.

Blind Spot

Area on the retina where the optic nerve exits; lacks photoreceptors.

Kinesthesia

Sense of body part movement and position.

Vestibular Sense

Sense of balance and spatial orientation from inner-ear structures.

Prostaglandins

Chemical messengers that intensify pain signals at injury sites.

Nociceptors

Sensory receptors that detect tissue damage and transmit pain.

Decibel (dB)

Unit measuring sound intensity.

Inattentional Blindness

Failure to notice visible objects when attention is elsewhere.

Congenital Insensitivity to Pain

Rare condition in which individuals feel no pain despite injury.

Reliability (Testing)

Consistency of a measurement or test over time.

Validity (Testing)

Extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure.

Mental Set

Tendency to approach problems using strategies that worked before.

Confirmation Bias

Tendency to seek information that confirms pre-existing beliefs.

Functional Fixedness

Inability to see alternative uses for familiar objects.

Sensory Memory

Brief storage of sensory information (<1 s).

Short-Term Memory

Temporary storage holding about 7 ± 2 items for ~20 s without rehearsal.

Working Memory

Active processing system that manipulates information held in short-term memory.

Long-Term Memory

Relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of knowledge.

Episodic Memory

Memory of personal events and experiences.

Implicit Memory

Unconscious retention such as skills and conditioned responses.

Explicit Memory

Conscious recollection of facts and events.

Primacy Effect

Tendency to remember items at the beginning of a list.

Recency Effect

Tendency to remember items at the end of a list.

Encoding

Process of transforming information into a storable form.

Storage

Retention of encoded information over time.

Retrieval

Process of getting information out of memory storage.

Flashbulb Memory

Vivid, detailed memory of an emotionally significant event.

Cognitive Map

Mental representation of a spatial environment.

Formal Reasoning

Logical problem-solving using established rules or algorithms.

Informal Reasoning

Everyday problem-solving using heuristics and personal judgment.

Environment

Exposure to a rich language environment, including interactions with caregivers and peers.

Genetics

Genetic factors can influence language development

Cognitive Abilities:

 Memory, attention, and problem-solving skills play a role in language acquisition.

Social Interaction:

thers is crucial for developing language skills.