PSYCHOLOGY 2E - Chapter 3 BIOPSYCHOLOGY

Flashcards covering key vocabulary from the Psychology 2E, Chapter 3: Biopsychology lecture, including concepts related to genetics, the nervous system, brain structures, neurotransmitters, and brain imaging techniques.

Biopsychology

The field that explores the biological mechanisms that underlie behavior, including genetics, the nervous system, and its interaction with the endocrine system.

PET scan (positron emission tomography)

A brain imaging technique that monitors changes in blood flow to different regions of the brain by injecting a mildly radioactive substance, helpful for showing brain activity.

CT scan (computed tomography)

A brain imaging technique involving x-rays that creates images of varied densities within the brain, used to show structures like tumors.

fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging)

A brain imaging technique that shows changes in metabolic activity over time, indicating brain activity.

Human Genetics

The study that helps researchers understand the biological basis underlying different human behaviors, thoughts, and reactions related to inherited genes.

Theory of Evolution

Charles Darwin's concept of inheritance of traits throughout generations through natural selection.

Natural Selection

The process where organisms better suited for their environment survive and reproduce, while those poorly suited die off.

Sickle cell anemia

A genetic condition in which red blood cells take on a crescent-like shape, affecting their function; carriers of one copy of the gene are thought to be immune from malaria.

Genetic Variation

The genetic difference between individuals, contributing to a species’ adaptation to its environment.

Chromosome

A long strand of genetic information known as DNA.

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

A helix-shaped molecule made of nucleotide base pairs, found in each chromosome.

Gene

A sequence of DNA that controls or partially controls physical characteristics known as traits.

Allele

A specific version of a gene.

Genotype

The genetic makeup of an individual based on the genetic material (DNA) inherited from one’s parents.

Phenotype

An individual’s observable characteristics, such as hair color, skin color, height, and build.

Polygenic traits

Inheritable traits that are controlled by more than one gene.

Dominant allele

An allele whose phenotype will always be expressed if present, either from one or both parents.

Recessive allele

An allele whose phenotype will only be physically expressed if the person is homozygous for that allele (inherited from both parents).

Heterozygous

Consisting of two different alleles for a given gene (e.g., Aa).

Homozygous

Consisting of two identical alleles for a given gene (e.g., AA or aa).

Punnett square

A tool used to predict how genes will interact in the production of offspring.

Mutations

Sudden, permanent changes in a gene.

Range of reaction

A theory asserting that genes set the boundaries within which we can operate, and our environment interacts with these genes to determine where in that range we will fall.

Genetic environmental correlation

A view of gene-environment interaction asserting that genes affect our environment, and our environment influences the expression of our genes.

Epigenetics

The study of gene-environment interactions, such as how the same genotype leads to different phenotypes.

Dendrites

Branch-like extensions of a neuron that receive incoming electrical signals from other neurons.

Axon

A long projection of a neuron that transmits electrical signals away from the cell body to other neurons.

Myelin sheath

A fatty substance that insulates axons and allows electrical signals to travel down the axon more quickly.

Terminal buttons

Small knobs at the end of axons that contain synaptic vesicles, which store neurotransmitters.

Synaptic vesicles

Storage sites within terminal buttons for chemical messengers called neurotransmitters.

Synapse

The space between the terminal button of one neuron and the dendrite of another neuron where neurotransmitters are exchanged.

Depolarization

A change in membrane potential where it becomes less negative, making the neuron more likely to fire (excitation).

Hyperpolarization

A change in membrane potential where it becomes more negative, making the neuron less likely to fire (inhibition).

Threshold of excitation

The level of electrical charge in the neuron's membrane that must be reached for the neuron to become active and fire an action potential.

Action Potential

An electrical signal that travels down a neuron's axon due to a change in membrane potential, operating on an all-or-none principle.

All-or-none principle

The concept that an incoming signal to a neuron is either sufficient to reach the threshold of excitation and fires fully, or it is not and does not fire at all.

Reuptake

The process by which excess neurotransmitters in the synapse are reabsorbed back into the axon terminal from which they were released.

Neurotransmitter

A chemical messenger of the nervous system that transmits signals across a synapse.

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter involved in muscle action and memory.

Beta-endorphin

A neurotransmitter involved in pain and pleasure.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter involved in mood, sleep, and learning.

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter involved in heart, intestines, and alertness.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter involved in mood and sleep.

Psychotropic medication

Drugs that treat psychiatric symptoms by restoring neurotransmitter balance.

Agonist

A drug that mimics or strengthens the effects of a neurotransmitter.

Antagonist

A drug that blocks or impedes the normal activity of a given neurotransmitter.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Composed of the brain and spinal cord, responsible for processing and coordinating information.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Composed of nerves extending to and from the CNS, connecting it to the rest of the body.

Somatic nervous system

A part of the PNS that relays sensory and motor information between the CNS and voluntary muscles.

Autonomic nervous system

A part of the PNS that controls internal organs and glands, regulating involuntary bodily functions.

Sympathetic nervous system

A division of the autonomic nervous system involved in stress-related activities and preparing the body for 'fight or flight'.

Fight or flight response

The activation of the sympathetic nervous system, allowing access to energy reserves and heightened sensory capacity to confront or escape a threat.

Parasympathetic nervous system

A division of the autonomic nervous system associated with routine, day-to-day operations of the body under relaxed conditions, promoting 'rest and restore'.

Rest and restore response

The action of the parasympathetic nervous system, relaxing the body and conserving energy after a period of stress or activity.

Homeostasis

A state of equilibrium in the body, maintained by the complementary actions of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.

Brain

The central organ of the nervous system, comprised of billions of interconnected neurons and glia, responsible for higher cognitive functions, emotions, and movement.

Spinal Cord

A long, tubular bundle of nerves that delivers mesages to and from the brain and has its own system of reflexes.

Lateralization

The concept that each hemisphere of the brain is associated with specialized functions.

Corpus callosum

A thick band of neural fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain, allowing them to communicate.

Forebrain

The largest and most complex part of the brain, containing the cerebral cortex, thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and limbic system, responsible for higher-level thinking.

Midbrain

A small central part of the brainstem, containing structures like the reticular formation, substantia nigra, and ventral tegmental area, involved in movement, sleep, and arousal.

Hindbrain

The oldest part of the brain, located at the back of the skull, containing the medulla, pons, and cerebellum (the brain stem components), responsible for basic life-sustaining functions.

Cerebral cortex

The wrinkled outer surface of the brain, associated with higher mental capabilities such as consciousness, thought, emotion, reasoning, language, and memory.

Thalamus

A sensory relay center of the brain where most senses (excluding smell) are routed before being directed to other areas for processing.

Hypothalamus

A structure in the forebrain that regulates homeostatic processes including body temperature, appetite, and blood pressure, and links the nervous and endocrine systems.

Pituitary gland

Often called the 'master gland,' it serves as part of the endocrine system, controlling the secretions of all other glands.

Limbic system

A collection of structures in the forebrain, including the amygdala and hippocampus, involved in mediating emotional response and memory.

Frontal Lobe

One of the four major lobes of the cerebral cortex, involved in executive functioning (planning, organization, judgment, attention, reasoning), motor control, emotion, and language.

Motor cortex

A strip of cortex in the frontal lobe involved in planning and coordinating voluntary movement.

Prefrontal cortex

The anterior part of the frontal lobe, responsible for higher-level cognitive functioning.

Broca’s area

A region in the left hemisphere of the frontal lobe essential for language production; damage to this area leads to difficulties producing speech.

Parietal Lobe

One of the four major lobes of the cerebral cortex, involved in processing various sensory and perceptual information, and contains the primary somatosensory cortex.

Somatosensory cortex

A strip of cortex in the parietal lobe essential for processing sensory information from across the body, such as touch, temperature, and pain.

Temporal Lobe

One of the four major lobes of the cerebral cortex, located near the temples, associated with hearing, memory, emotion, and some aspects of language.

Auditory cortex

A strip of cortex in the temporal lobe responsible for processing auditory information.

Wernicke’s area

A region in the temporal lobe important for speech comprehension; damage to this area results in difficulty understanding language.

Occipital Lobe

One of the four major lobes of the cerebral cortex, located at the back of the brain, primarily associated with visual processing.

Primary visual cortex

A part of the occipital lobe responsible for interpreting incoming visual information.

Amygdala

A structure within the limbic system involved in our experience of emotion, tying emotional meaning to memories, and processing fear.

Hippocampus

A structure within the limbic system associated with learning and memory, particularly spatial memory.

Reticular formation

A network of neurons in the midbrain important in regulating the sleep/wake cycle, arousal, alertness, and motor activity.

Substantia Nigra

A midbrain structure where dopamine is produced, involved in the control of movement.

Ventral tegmental area (VTA)

A midbrain structure where dopamine is produced, associated with mood, reward, and addiction.

Medulla

A part of the hindbrain (brain stem) that controls automated processes like breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate.

Pons

A part of the hindbrain (brain stem) that connects the brain and the spinal cord, involved in regulating brain activity during sleep.

Cerebellum

A part of the hindbrain that controls balance, coordination, movement, motor skills, and is important in processing some types of memory.

Brain stem

Comprised of the medulla, pons, and cerebellum, it connects the cerebrum and cerebellum to the spinal cord, controlling vital involuntary functions.

MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

A brain imaging technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce detailed pictures of soft tissues such as the brain.

EEG (Electroencephalography)

A brain imaging technique that involves recording the electrical activity of the brain via electrodes on the scalp, used to study the timing of overall brain activities.

Endocrine System

A series of glands that produce hormones to regulate normal bodily functions, linking to the nervous system via the hypothalamus.

Thyroid gland

An endocrine gland that secretes Thyroxine, which regulates growth, metabolism, and appetite.

Adrenal gland

An endocrine gland that secretes hormones involved in the stress response.

Gonad

Endocrine glands (testes in males, ovaries in females) that secrete sex hormones important for reproduction, sexual motivation, and behavior.

Pancreas

An endocrine gland that secretes hormones, such as insulin and glucagon, that regulate blood sugar.