AP Gov Test 3

Explain the relationship between core beliefs of U.S. citizens and attitudes about the role of government.

Core beliefs of U.S. citizens, like individualism, equality, and democracy, shape their attitudes towards government roles.

This leads to diverse expectations for the government’s role in economic, social, and political issues.

Some may support a limited government, while others may support an expanded role to address inequalities.

American exceptionalism

The idea that America is a very unique country, with no place like it in the world. The U.S. is a land of opportunity, with a distinct national identity and values.

Political Efficacy

A citizen’s sense of whether or not their vote can make a difference, which can then impact their voting behavior positively or negatively.

Internal efficacy

The belief in one's own ability to understand and influence political events and outcomes.

External efficacy

When a person feels that the government relates to them and understands them. Has gone down in the US.

What is trust in governmental institutions?

The confidence that citizens have in government agencies and officials to act in the public's best interest. It reflects the public's perception of the integrity and effectiveness of government operations.

What is liberty, and what is equality? What is the tension between them?

Liberty is the principle that emphasizes individual freedom from government interference, focusing on protecting personal rights such as freedom of speech, religion, and economic choice (free markets, private property).

Equality is the principle that emphasizes fair treatment and equal opportunity, often requiring government action to ensure equal protection under the law, reduce discrimination, and address economic inequality through policies like regulation, social programs, or progressive taxation.

Key tension: Policies that promote equality often limit liberty, while policies that maximize liberty can result in unequal outcomes.

Views of silent generation, baby boomers, Generation X, millenials, Gen Z on religion

1. Silent Generation: ‘28 -’45 - 67% religious important, law and order very important

2. Baby Boomers: ‘46 - ‘64 - 59% religious

3. Generation X: ‘65 - ‘80 - 53% religious

4. Millenials: ‘81 - ‘96 - High 30s% religious - mostly liberal

5. Gen Z: ‘00s - ‘12 - More diverse, educated, liberal

Civil society

Institutions that people can voluntarily join in order to interact with the government and hold it accountable. (e.g, churches, media, interest groups, political parties)

Describe the elements of a scientific poll (4)

-Sample of 1500 people to be a representative poll

Random sampling: Method of selecting a group of people to poll where any given voter or adult has an equal chance of being inerviewed.

Representative sample: A smaller group chosen from a larger population that accurately mirrors its key characteristics (like age, gender, income) in the same proportions.

Sampling error: The difference between the results of random samples taken at the same time

Opinion polls

Surveys conducted to measure public opinion on various issues, typically using random sampling to ensure accuracy.

Tracking polls

Polls that measure changes in public opinion over time by repeatedly asking the same questions to the same group of people. Close to the election date, someone running takes polls every day to gauge opinion.

Push poll (not scientific)

A survey designed to influence respondents' opinions under the guise of gathering information, often leading with leading questions. Ex: Bush v. McCain Rep. Primary, somebody in favor of Bush did the poll and persuaded McCain supporters against McCain.

Entrance polls

Surveys conducted before an election to gauge voter preferences and demographics as they enter polling places.

Exit poll

Polls based on interviews conducted on election day, with randomly selected voters to predict election results and gather data.

Importance of public opinion as a source of political influence in a given election or policy debate

Public opinion shapes candidate strategies, policy decisions, and can sway election outcomes, reflecting the electorate's priorities and concerns.

Institutional obstacles to voting (7)

Institutional obstacles:

• Absentee Voting Requirements: Need to know the deadline, have the right documents, fill out documents correctly, if you are out of state and need to vote.

• Registration requirements: 

  • You must take it upon yourself to register to vote

  • If you are not registered, you cannot vote

  • Registration takes time and knowledge

• Number of elections

  • The U.S. holds many elections compared to other countries.

  • Frequent elections can lead to lower voter turnout due to time constraints and voter fatigue.

• Two party system

  • Elections are set up to encourage a two party system.

  • People feeling iffy about both parties

• Tuesday - election day

  • Election day is not a holiday

  • Residency requirements - have to vote at closest polling place to home

• VAP v. VEP

  • Voting-age population:  Includes all citizens who are eligible to vote after reaching the minimum age requirement (18+).

  • Voting-eligible population: Citizens who have reached the minimum age to be eligible for voting (18+), excluding those who are not legally permitted to vote

    • Felons disenfranchised

    • Legal residents who are not citizens

• State governments requiring specific photo ID or types of ID in order to vote

Demographic characteristics of nonvoting (REAR)

Race: Black and Hispanic voters have lower turnout than White voters due to structural barriers, lower average income, and historical discrimination.

Education: Lower-educated individuals vote less because they are less politically informed and less familiar with registration and election procedures.

Age: Younger voters (18–29) have lower turnout due to less political socialization and weaker connections to policy issues.

Religion: People who regularly attend religious services vote at higher rates due to increased civic engagement and exposure to political discussion.

Types of political participants (6, IAVCCP)

• Inactive - 20%. Do no political action (don’t vote, donate, participate at all)

• Active - 10% Do many types of political action.

• Voting specialist - vote in elections.

• Campaigners - vote and involved in campaigning.

• Communalist - vote and are involved in local politics (e.g local chapter of NAACP)

• Parochial participant - only if you need something, you contact a representative. Focused on personal issues

Democratic party widely held Economic and Social beliefs

Economic: Policies favoring government intervention and regulation to promote economic equity. Support for civil rights, social justice, and inclusive policies.

Social: Advocacy for individual freedoms, reproductive rights, and comprehensive healthcare access.

Republican party widely held Economic and Social beliefs

Economic: Policies favoring free market principles and reduced government intervention. Support for tax cuts and business deregulation.

Social: Emphasis on traditional values, limited government in personal affairs, and opposition to expansive social programs.

Explain the difference between liberal and conservative ideologies.

Liberal ideologies typically advocate for social equality, government intervention in the economy, and progressive reforms, while conservative ideologies emphasize individual responsibility, limited government, and traditional social values.

Define culture wars, and give an example

Culture wars refer to the political and social conflicts stemming from differing values and beliefs regarding social issues such as abortion, immigration, and LGBTQ+ rights. These disputes often manifest in debates between liberal and conservative groups.

Progressives v. Orthodox

1. Progressives: personal autonomy & self-expression > morality/tradition

2. Orthodox: morality/tradition > personal autonomy & self-expression. morality is fixed; rooted in religion/natural law

What is the 15th Amendment and how did it increase voter participation? How did people bypass it?

The 15th Amendment to the US Constitution prohibits denying the right to vote based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude. To bypass, literacy tests, poll taxes (fees to vote), Grandfather Clause (if ancestors voted prior to 1867, you would be exempt), were created.  This amendment aimed to increase voter participation among African American men following the Civil War.

What was the Voting Rights Act of 1965 and how did it increase voter participation?

The Voting Rights Act of 1965 aimed to eliminate racial discrimination in voting by banning literacy tests and requiring federal oversight of voter registration in areas with a history of discriminatory practices. This legislation led to a significant increase in voter registration and participation among minority populations.

How did laws and Court rulings eliminating literacy tests, poll tax, grandfather clause affect voting?

Laws and Court rulings eliminating literacy tests, poll taxes, and the grandfather clause expanded access to voting by removing barriers that historically disenfranchised minority voters. This led to higher voter registration and participation rates, particularly among African Americans.

What was the 17th Amendment and how did it increase voting participation?

The 17th Amendment established the direct election of U.S. Senators by popular vote, allowing citizens greater control over their representation in Congress. This amendment aimed to reduce corruption and increase voter participation by making it easier for the public to choose their Senators.

What was the 19th Amendment and how did it increase voting participation?

The 19th Amendment granted women the right to vote, prohibiting any U.S. citizen from being denied the right to vote on the basis of sex. This landmark legislation significantly increased voter participation by enfranchising millions of women across the nation.

What was the 23rd Amendment and how did it increase voting participation?

The 23rd Amendment granted residents of Washington, D.C. the right to vote in presidential elections by allocating them electoral votes as if they were a state. This increased voting participation by ensuring that citizens living in the nation’s capital could have a say in the election of the President.

What was the 24th Amendment and how did it increase voting participation?

The 24th Amendment abolished poll taxes in federal elections, removing a financial barrier that disproportionately affected low-income and minority voters. This amendment significantly increased voting participation by ensuring that all citizens, regardless of their economic status, could vote without having to pay a tax.

What was the 26th Amendment and how did it increase voting participation?

The 26th Amendment lowered the voting age to 18, ensuring that younger citizens could participate in elections. This change increased voter participation by allowing millions of newly eligible voters to exercise their rights.

Bush v. Gore (Story, question, ruling, reasons, impact)

Story: The story of Bush v. Gore centers on the controversial 2000 presidential election between George W. Bush and Al Gore, focusing on the Florida vote recount.

Question: Did the Florida Supreme Court's order for a manual recount violate the Equal Protection Clause?

Ruling: The Supreme Court ruled in a 5-4 decision to halt the recount, effectively awarding Florida's electoral votes to Bush.

Reasons: The Court found that the lack of consistent standards for the recount violated the Equal Protection Clause, leading to unequal treatment of voters.

Impact: Determined the outcome of the election, highlighting the importance of judicial involvement in electoral processes and raising concerns over voting rights and election integrity.

What was the motor-voter bill and how did it affect voting?

The Motor Voter Bill, officially known as the National Voter Registration Act of 1993, aimed to increase voter registration by allowing individuals to register to vote when applying for or renewing a driver's license. This legislation significantly improved access to the electoral process, particularly for younger and low-income voters, thereby boosting overall voter participation.

What is the Australian Ballot, and how did it affect voting?

 The Australian ballot, a government-supplied ballot to be cast in secret, was adopted by states to reduce voting fraud with party-printed ballots and instances where voters voted multiple times. The Australian ballot is the standard today. It improved voter privacy and encouraged honest voting, leading to more accurate election outcomes.

Rational Choice model of voting behavior

is a theory that suggests voters make decisions based on a rational analysis of their self-interests, balancing the benefits of voting with the costs. It explains how individuals evaluate candidates and policies to maximize their personal utility in elections.

Retrospective Voting model of voting behavior

is a theory that suggests voters make decisions based on their evaluations of a candidate's past performance in office. This model emphasizes how voters assess the successes or failures of incumbents, influencing their decisions in subsequent elections.

Prospective Voting model of voting behavior

is a theory that suggests voters make decisions based on their expectations of a candidate's future performance and proposed policies. This model emphasizes how voters consider potential outcomes and align their choices with their future preferences.

Party Line model of voting behavior

is a theory that suggests voters make decisions based on their loyalty to a political party's platform and candidates, often prioritizing party affiliation over individual candidate assessments. This model highlights the influence of party identity in shaping voting behavior.

How does efficacy influence voter turnout?

Efficacy refers to the belief that one's actions can influence political processes. Higher levels of efficacy can lead to increased voter turnout, as individuals feel empowered to participate in elections and impact outcomes.

How do voting incentives, penalties, or fines influence voter turnout?

Voting incentives, penalties, or fines are mechanisms designed to encourage or discourage participation in elections. Incentives such as tax breaks or prizes can increase turnout by providing rewards for voting, while penalties, including fines for failing to vote, aim to compel civic participation.

How does the election type (mid-term or presidential) influence voter turnout? Why does this trend happen?

Election type significantly affects voter turnout, with presidential elections typically attracting higher participation rates compared to mid-term elections. This trend is influenced by factors such as increased media coverage, voter enthusiasm, and the pivotal nature of presidential contests.

How does party identification and ideological orientation influence voter choice?

Party identification and ideological orientation significantly influence voter turnout, as individuals who strongly identify with a political party or align with its ideology are more likely to participate in elections. This is due to a sense of belonging and motivation to support candidates who reflect their values.

How do candidate characteristics influence voter choice?

Candidate characteristics, such as charisma, experience, and personal background, significantly affect voter choice. Voters often prefer candidates who they believe best represent their values and are relatable, impacting overall electoral success.

How do contemporary political issues influence voter choice?

Contemporary political issues play a crucial role in shaping voter choice, as they can mobilize or alienate voters based on their priorities and concerns. Issues such as the economy, healthcare, and social justice resonate with voters' experiences and influence their decisions at the polls.

How do religious beliefs or affiliation, gender, race and ethnicity, and other demographic characteristics influence voter choice?

Demographic characteristics, including religious beliefs, gender, race, and ethnicity, significantly influence voter choice by shaping individuals' perspectives and priorities. These factors often impact party allegiance and the issues voters prioritize, ultimately affecting electoral outcomes.

What are linkage institutions?

Linkage institutions are structures that connect citizens to the government, allowing individuals to communicate their preferences to policy-makers.

What are the four linkage institutions?

The four linkage institutions are political parties, interest groups, elections, and the media.

Explain the function and impact of political parties on the electorate and government.

Political parties function as links between citizens and government by recruiting candidates, educating voters, mobilizing support, and shaping policy, impacting the electorate by simplifying choices and offering platforms.

They impact government by organizing governing majorities, coordinating policy, and holding officials accountable.

What are the five functions of political parties pertaining to the electorate and government?

The five functions are

1. Candidate recruitment - Parties find, vet, and support individuals to run for office

2. Party platforms/policy formulation - Develop and promote specific policy goals (platforms) that guide government action and offer voters distinct choices

3. Campaign management - They fundraise, manage messaging, and run campaigns to help candidates win elections.

4. Mobilizing & educating voters: Parties rally support, get people to the polls (turnout), and explain complex issues to the public.

5. Organizing government - After elections, parties structure legislatures and coordinate officials.

How have parties adapted to candidate-centered campaigns, and how has their role in nominating candidates been weakened?

Political parties have adapted by focusing more on marketing candidates over party identity, embracing social media and data analytics for outreach. Individual candidates are more in charge of their own campaigns, as opposed to being beholden to their parties, because candidates rely on personal funding due to parties being limited in fundraising.

How has the structure of parties been influenced by regional realignments?

Regional realignments have led to shifts in party strength, as demographic changes and evolving political issues cause parties to adapt their platforms and strategies. This results in realigned party bases that reflect the changing preferences of voters in different regions.

How has the structure of parties been influenced by campaign finance law? What were FECA (1973) and BCRA (2002)?

Campaign finance laws have significantly limited party operations by regulating contributions and expenditures. FECA (Federal Election Campaign Act) of 1973 established limits on individual contributions, mandated transparency, and created PACS. BCRA (Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act) of 2002 restricted soft money contributions and limited electioneering communications close to elections.

Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission (2010) (Provision, facts, question, holding, reasons)

Provision: First Amendment freedom of speech.

Facts: Citizens United, a nonprofit organization, created a film critical of Hillary Clinton and wanted to broadcast it close to the 2008 primary elections. Federal law prohibited electioneering communications within 30 days of a primary or 60 days of a general election.

Question: Does the restriction on independent political expenditures by corporations and unions violate the First Amendment?

Holding: Yes. The Court ruled in favor of Citizens United.

Reasons: Political spending is a form of protected speech. The government cannot limit corporate or union spending on independent political communications. The ruling struck down portions of the BCRA, allowing unlimited independent expenditures by corporations and PACs.

What are the barriers to third-party and independent-candidate success? (6)

• Plurality system (first past the post): HOR - plurality single-member districts. The winner is chosen by whoever gets the most votes, not the majority of votes. Minority parties get 1 chance to win, and people feel they are wasting their vote on a 3rd party candidate. In a majority system, run-offs between the top 2 candidates if the majority doesn’t win. Third party gets two chances.

• Winner-take-all: If you win the plurality system (get more votes than everyone else) within a state, you get all the votes for that state.

  • Proportional representation leads to a multi-party system, like in European nations. 

• Proportional Representation: If we had proportional representation, the number of electoral votes that a candidate would receive would be proportional to the popular vote in that state. Proportional representation exists in Europe, where the system is based on voting percentage.

• Campaign finance: Candidates for presidential campaigns get public financing (taxpayer money). Automatic for the two parties, but not automatic for third party candidates. Financial advantage

• Ballot access: The two-party candidates are automatically on every ballot in every state.

• Lack of cleavages: The lack of formation of political parties based on certain undeniable beliefs. Less deep division in beliefs. (e.g., religion in other countries, catholics v. protestant party)

In comparison to proportional systems, how do winner-take-all voting districts serve as a structural barrier to third-party and independent candidate success?

Winner-take-all voting districts create a significant barrier for third-party and independent candidates as they eliminate the possibility of obtaining representation unless they secure the most votes. This system discourages voter support for minor parties, as many individuals feel their votes are wasted on candidates unlikely to win.

What is the difference between a political party and an interest group?

Although they both serve as linkage institutions, political parties aim to gain control of government through elections, while interest groups seek to influence policy without seeking office.

What are the reasons the United States maintains a strong two party system?

The United States maintains a strong two-party system due to factors such as plurality voting, winner-take-all electoral processes, historical precedent, and the role of campaign finance, which collectively hinder the success of third parties.

What are the different types of independent/minor parties, and examples of each? (4, ISEF)

Ideological - focused on ideals

• Socialist

• Libertarian (liberal socially, conservative economically, less gov control)

Single issue - focused on only one issue

• Free Soil party (anti-slavery party)

• Green Party (environment)

Economic protest - revolved around economic issues

• Populist Party

Factional/splinter parties - Somebody who breaks away from the major party and forms their own party

• Bull Moose (1912) - Teddy Roosevelt’s party after he left Rep party, formed his own party, and got 88 EC votes

• Dixiecrats (1948) - Felt Dem party was abandoning values and formed a state rights party

• American Independent Party (1968) - George Wallace formed his own party after the Dems were becoming more civil-rights focused

What is the role of the DNC and RNC?

The Democratic National Committee (DNC) and Republican National Committee (RNC) are responsible for promoting their respective party platforms, organizing national conventions, fundraising, and supporting candidates in elections. They play crucial roles in mobilizing voters and managing party operations.

What is party realignment? (2 answers)

A lasting time period where a political party is losing support (and the other is gaining), leading to one party being much stronger than the other OR a time period in which a party disappears and its supporters either switch allegiance to another party or become independent voters.

What are the factors that play into the incumbency advantage phenomenon?

Incumbency advantage refers to the benefits that current officeholders have during elections, like name recognition, access to campaign finance, established voter networks, power to pass programs/funds, and behaving at risk/working hard increases safety in their position. These factors lead to higher re-election rates for incumbents.

What are open primaries and how do they affect elections?

Open primaries allow voters to participate in any party's primary (only one) election regardless of their registered party affiliation, potentially leading to more moderate candidates and influencing general election outcomes by increasing cross-over voting/raiding.

What are closed primaries and how do they affect elections?

Closed primaries restrict participation to registered party members only, preventing cross-party voting. Voters must register with a party before voting. This can lead to more ideologically consistent candidates but may limit overall voter engagement in the electoral process. Independent voters do not get to vote in closed primaries, and states with closed primaries generally have stronger parties.

What is the significance of New Hampshire primary, Iowa caucus, and Super Tuesday in elections?

New Hampshire primary/Iowa caucus: These contests are at the start of the primary calendar and are significant because they influence voter perceptions/funding. Generally, if a candidate isn’t in the top 3 candidates in NH/IA, they will likely not win the primary.

Super Tuesday: The date when over a dozen states run their respective primaries, which can lead to a significant number of delegates being awarded quickly, often determining the front-runners for the nomination.

What is a caucus and how does it affect elections?

A caucus (in place of a primary) is a meeting of party members to discuss and select candidates/# of delegates for elections, often involving public debate and voting. It affects elections by fostering grassroots engagement but can be less representative than primaries due to lower participation and more ideological participants.

What is a delegate and a pledged delegate?

Delegate: a person authorized to represent a party at a convention or caucus, typically selected through primaries or caucuses (electors)
Pledged delegate: a delegate bound to support a specific candidate based on the results of a primary or caucus (most delegates).

What is a super delegate?

A superdelegate is a party official or leader who is not bound by primary or caucus results and can support any candidate of their choice at the convention. They play a significant role in influencing the nomination process due to their votes being unpledged, with their vote being most influential in tight races. Only used by Dems.

What are party conventions and how do they affect elections?

Party conventions are gatherings of party members, held after primaries, to officially nominate candidates for president and vice president, vote for the party platform, and unite the party ahead of the general election. They affect elections by solidifying party support and serving as a showcase for candidate appeal. Keynote speeches are made by up-and-coming politicians, and acceptance speeches are given by the winning candidate.

How do general (presidential) elections work in the US? (5 steps)

Steps in the General Election

1. Candidates are nominated

   • Major parties nominate candidates at national conventions after primaries/caucuses.

   • Independent/third-party candidates qualify via state ballot rules.

2. General election campaign

   • Candidates campaign nationwide, focusing heavily on swing states.

   • Includes debates, ads, rallies, and voter outreach.

3. Popular vote (Election Day)

   • Voters technically vote for a slate of electors, not directly for president.

   • Most states use a winner-take-all system.

4. Electoral College vote

   • Each state gets electors equal to its House + Senate members (DC gets 3).

   • Total electors: 538.

   • 270 electoral votes needed to win.

5. Congress counts electoral votes

   • In January, Congress certifies the results.

   • President and Vice President are officially declared.

What is the 12th Amendment?

The 12th Amendment is a constitutional provision that adjusted the Electoral College, saying electors must vote separately for Pres. and VP to prevent conflicts in the case of a tie, or the VP claiming presidency votes.

What is the 23rd Amendment?

The 23rd Amendment grants residents of Washington, D.C. the right to vote in presidential elections by allocating them electoral votes as if it were a state.

What are electors, and what are faithless electors?

Electors: Members of the Electoral College chosen by each state to formally vote for President and Vice President. Each state’s number of electors = House + Senate seats (DC has 3). Voters choose electors on Election Day.

Faithless Electors: Electors who do NOT vote for the candidate they pledged to support. Rare and usually do not change outcomes. Many states have laws penalizing or replacing faithless electors.

What is the Electoral College? How are electoral votes assigned? How does it work? If there is no majority or a tie, who chooses? What are the pros and cons?

The Electoral College is the system established in Article II to elect the President and Vice President.

Each state’s electoral votes equal its House seats (population-based) plus 2 Senators; DC gets 3 under the 23rd Amendment. There are 538 total electoral votes, and 270 are needed to win.

Voters choose a slate of electors, and in most states, the winner-take-all candidate receives all of the state’s electoral votes.

If no candidate wins a majority, the House of Representatives selects the President (one vote per state), and the Senate selects the Vice President.

Pros: stable system, quick outcomes, reflects federalism.
Cons: faithless electors and the possibility of winning the popular vote but losing the presidency.

What is the role of the census in the Electoral College?

The census, conducted every 10 years, determines each state’s population and is used to reapportion House seats. Because a state’s electoral votes equal its House seats plus two senators, the census directly affects Electoral College totals.

What is reapportionment?

The process, following the census, of redistributing seats in the HOR among the states based on population changes, which also affects each state’s number of electoral votes.

How is it possible to win the popular vote, but lose the election?

Because the president is chosen by the Electoral College, not the national popular vote. A candidate can win large margins in a few states but lose many states by small margins, allowing the opponent to win 270 electoral votes and the presidency.

What is the role of the House and Senate in the Electoral College? Why is it set up this way?

A state’s electoral votes equal its House seats (population-based) plus two Senators (equal per state). This setup is meant to reflect federalism by balancing the influence of large and small states.

Why has the Electoral College existed for so long? Why is it so difficult to reform the EC?

The Electoral College has existed for so long because it is a known, stable system embedded in the Constitution and reflects federalism and the two-party system.

Reform is difficult because major changes require a constitutional amendment, needing approval from ⅔ of Congress and ¾ of the states, and small/large states are unlikely to support changes that would reduce their influence.

How do how campaign organizations and strategies affect the election process?

Campaign organizations raise money, coordinate messaging, and mobilize voters, while strategies like targeting swing states, using data analytics, advertising, and debates shape where candidates spend time and resources. These choices influence voter turnout, issue prevalence, and ultimately who wins elections, especially under the Electoral College system.

Buckley v. Valeo (1976) importance: What did it establish?

Buckley v. Valeo (1976) is a landmark AP Gov case establishing that campaign spending is protected "speech" under the First Amendment. The Supreme Court upheld limits on direct donations (contributions) to prevent corruption but ruled that restricting independent expenditures,, or candidates' personal spending, violates free speech rights.

What was the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 (McCain Feingold Act)?

The Supreme Court initially upheld most of the law, including bans on soft money (loopholes in spending) and limits on electioneering communications, as constitutional to prevent corruption.

Later, decisions weakened it by allowing unlimited independent political spending by corporations and unions.

What is a PAC? (Political Action Committee)

An organization that raises and donates money to support or oppose political candidates. PACs have contribution limits and are often connected to interest groups or unions.

What is a Leadership PAC?

A type of PAC run by a politician to raise money that helps other candidates or their own campaigns, increasing the politician’s influence and power within their party.

What is a 527?

Loophole - A tax-exempt political organization that can raise unlimited money to influence elections but cannot directly donate to candidates. Often used for issue advocacy and ads.

What is a 501(c)?

A tax-exempt nonprofit organization that can engage in limited political activity as long as it is not their main purpose. Donors are often not disclosed (dark money groups)

What is dark money?

Political spending by organizations (like some 501(c) groups) that do not have to reveal their donors, making the source of the money unknown.

What is a Super PAC?

A PAC that can be formed by anyone, that can raise unlimited amounts of money but cannot coordinate directly with candidates or campaigns. Citizen United ruling led to the creation of Super PACS.

What is public financing (and public matching funds) and why a candidate would refuse to accept them?

A system where candidates receive government (taxpayer) money for their campaigns if they agree to spending limits.

Candidates may refuse public financing to avoid limits and raise more money privately, especially in competitive races.

What is the significance of the Daisy ad?

A political TV ad used by LBJ that implied Barry Goldwater would lead to nuclear war. It showed the power of emotional and fear-based advertising (only aired once, helped win election) and helped normalize negative campaign ads.

What is the significance of the Willie Horton ad?

An attack ad used against Michael Dukakis by Bush that focused on crime and race to portray him as soft on crime (furlough system, Horton escaped and raped/killed white woman). It demonstrated how negative ads and emotional appeals can strongly influence voters and shape public perception. It played on people’s racial fears.

What are the characteristics of a good political ad?

A good political ad is memorable, clear, and emotionally resonant. It effectively communicates the candidate's message while addressing voter concerns and using persuasive visuals or narratives.

What is a visual and a spot (advertising)?

A visual ad relies mainly on images and symbols to create an emotional response, while a spot ad is a short advertisement that delivers a single, clear campaign message to voters.

What is a categorical grant?

A categorical grant is federal funding given to state or local governments for a specific, narrowly defined purpose, with strict rules on how the money must be used.

What is a block grant?

A block grant is federal funding given to state or local governments for a broad area, allowing states greater flexibility in how the money is spent.