GOVT 2306 Final Exam

2 Types of Democracies

1. Pure/True/Direct Democracy

2. Representative/Indirect Democracy

Pure/True/Direct Democracy

type of democracy

• Every citizen votes on Every issue.

Representative/Indirect Democracy

type of democracy. also known as Republican democracy

• People vote for people to represent their interests.

  • the U.S. has a representative/indirect democracy.

3 Ways of Fragmentation of Powers

1. Separation of powers

2. Checks and balances

3. Federalism

Separation of Powers

type of fragmentation of powers

• separation of powers into three branches to carry out the three major functions of government

  • pass laws

  • execute laws

  • interpret laws

• allows ambition to counter ambition, to prevent any one authority from monopolizing power.

1. Legislative Branch

2. Executive Branch

3. Judicial Branch

Legislative Branch

fragmentation of powers-separation of powers

• U.S. Congress

  • Makes laws, declares war, ratifies treaties, and levies taxes.

• Article 1

Executive Branch

fragmentation of powers-separation of powers

• U.S. President

  • Enforces laws, conducts foreign affairs, and commands the armed forces.

• Article 2

Judicial Branch

fragmentation of powers-separation of powers

• U.S. Supreme Court

  • Interprets laws and the Constitution, ensuring they comply with it

• Article 3

Checks and Balances

type of fragmentation of powers

• Create a mixture of powers that permits the three branches of government to limit one another. (A check is a control one branch has over another’s functions, creating a balance of power.)

Examples:

• Executive checks legislative

  • President can VETO law by Congress

• Legislative checks executive

  • Congress can OVERRIDE veto

• Legislative checks executive

  • Congress can IMPEACH president

• Judicial checks legislative and executive

  • Judiciary can rule law UNCONSTITUTIONAL over congress and executive

Federalism

type of fragmentation of powers

• division of powers between federal and state governments

5 Compromises of Constitution

• constitutional convention: 1787

• constitution written: 1789

1. Great Compromise/Conneticut Plan→state representation in national legislature

   1. Virginia Plan:

   2. New Jersey Plan

2. Congress the power to regulate commerce but not to tax exports.→ Southern delegates feared the national government would impose an export tax on their agricultural goods.

3. Slave trade could not be banned before 1808.→Southern delegates feared the national government would impose an export tax on their agricultural goods and interfere with slavery.

4. 3/5 Compromise→population-based representation for Congress and less taxation

5. Bill of Rights→Federalists agreed to include 10 amendments that explicitly outlined and protected people’s rights to get Anti-Federalists vote for ratifying the Constitution.

   1. Federalists

   2. Anti-Federalists

Great Compromise

compromise of Constitution (between big and small states)

• Virginia Plan: large states wanted population-based representation in Congress

• New Jersey Plan: small states wanted equal representation in Congress

  • = Great Compromise: established Bicameral Legislature

    1. Senate: equal, 2 senators per state

    2. House of Representatives: population based, minimum of 1 representative

Bill of Rights

compromise of Constitution (between supporters of strong central gov and weaker central gov)

Federalists agreed to include 10 amendments that explicitly outlined and protected people’s rights to get Anti-Federalists vote for ratifying the Constitution.

1. Federalists: strong central government

   1. James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay (writers of Federalist Papers)

2. Anti-Federalists: against strong central government

   1. Patrick Henry, George Mason, and Richard Henry Lee

4 Principles of Constitution

1. Separation of Powers & Checks and Balances

2. Federalism

3. Limited Government

4. Judicial Review

Limited Government

principle of the Constitution

• the powers of government are limited by the rights and liberties of the governed.

• basic to the very idea of constitutional government; people give the government listed powers and duties through a constitution, while reserving the rest to themselves.

• Civil liberties and rights guarantee the openness and competitiveness of the political process, which is not only the right to vote but also the freedom to dissent, demonstrate, and organize to produce alternatives—this makes voting meaningful.

Judicial Review

principle of the Constitution

• power vested in the Supreme Court/judicial branch to decide on the constitutionality of the acts of the government (local, state, and federal).

4 Methods of Changing the Constitution

1. Amendments

2. Judicial Interpretation

3. Legislation

4. Custom

Amendments

Least common method of changing the constitution 

• Article 5 (V): provides methods for adopting amendments  

• Amendments may be proposed by a two-thirds vote of each house of Congress or (if requested by two-thirds of the state legislatures) by a national convention called by Congress.  

• They must be ratified by conventions in three-fourths of the states, or by three-fourths of the state legislatures (the choice is up to Congress).  

• Note, the president is not involved. 

Judicial Interpretation

• Most common method of changing the constitution  

• Process by which judges interpret the law, including the Constitution, legislation, and other legal documents for Supreme Court cases 

Legislation

• Congress driven

• Process of making laws, or the laws themselves, that are passed by a governing body. This process involves drafting, debating, and voting on proposed laws

Custom

1. informal but widespread way of changing the Constitution (Many practices considered constitutional are not mentioned in document)

   1. Ex: growth of political parties and their role in Congress, the presidential nominating conventions, the breakdown of an independent Electoral College, and the committee system in Congress 

2. Via established practices and traditions that evolve over time, without formally amending the text itself

5 President-Related Terms

1. Election

2. Electoral College

3. Going Public

4. Power to Persuade

5. 6 Roles

Election

• Nomination Phase (Caucus or Primary)

• General Election Phase

presidency term

2 Phases:

1. Nomination Phase: Deciding who the party’s presidential candidate will be. 2 Ways:

   1. Caucus: Meetings run by political parties that are held at the county, district, or precinct level. Some caucuses choose candidates by secret ballot. Others require participants to divide themselves into groups according to the candidate they support. Undecided participants form their own group. Each candidate’s group gives speeches and tries to get others to join their group. At the end, the number of delegates given to each candidate is based on the number of caucus votes they received.

      1. (1st held in Iowa) → Completely inefficient. Made for small towns/locales. Candidates and their campaigns show up and then we vote (several cycles until 1 candidate is decided)

   2. Primary: Voters choose their preferred candidate anonymously by casting secret ballots. The state where the primary is held takes the results of the vote into account to award delegates to the winners. 2 Types:

      1. Open Primary: open to all voters, regardless of their political party affiliation. They give voters freedom when casting their vote. This is because registered voters can privately vote in either party's primary.

      2. Closed Primary: Voters in states with closed primaries must register with a political party before voting in the party's primary (people registered as Republican must vote for the Republican candidates). Independent and unaffiliated voters cannot vote.

         1. first state to carry out primary election is New Hampshire

         2. TX have open primary; a person can technically vote for democratic and then change their mind later and vote for republican

2. Election Phase: candidates are chosen and begin campaigning September up to Election Day in November; electoral college process in December; votes counted in January; Jan 20 president inauguration day

Stages of Nomination Phase

• Exhibition Season

• Media Fishbowl

• Super Tuesday

• Mop-up Stage

• National Convention

• Balance the Ticket

1. Exhibition season: happens years before they run, testing the waters, see who else is running, what kind of funding can they receive (mainstream money matters, it must go to you) 

2. Media fishbowl: media take over Iowa and New Hampshire during new caucus and primary

   1. These races do not determine who will win or the frontrunner but determines who will lose (if they don’t do well, they drop out) 

3. Super Tuesday: block of states votes together  

   1. By Tuesday, you know who the nominee will be for the parties  

4. Mop-up stage, June: whichever states have not voted, they will vote then  

5. National convention: the party formally elects nominee for party, that nominee presents his platform and nominates/selects his VP running mate  

1. Choosing VP is meant to balance the ticket: if the pres candidate appeals to one section of electorate, the VP chosen should appeal to another section of electorate 

   1. Ex: obama (inexperienced in DC) and biden (old school, experienced); trump (controversial, used to be democrat) and pence (evangical christian, mighty man; mainstream republican to get him popular with them)-issue was morality and religion; biden and harris (man and woman, old and young); trump and vance (old and young, not born rich) 

Electoral College

presidency term

• the final decision maker of the next President

• Article II

House: 435

Senate: 100 

District of Columbia: 3 

= 538 total electors 

• all states use winner-takes-all-system except Maine and Nebraska-Congressional District Method

• Each state is granted as many electors—members of the Electoral College—as it has Senators and Representatives combined.

• the electors’ votes within each state are added up, and the candidate with the most votes receives all that state’s votes in the Electoral College (except for Maine and Nebraska, which do not use this “winner-take-all” system)

  • If any candidate has a national majority of Electoral College votes—270, which is 50 percent plus 1—they become president.

  • If no candidate wins a majority—because several candidates have split the votes or two candidates have tied—the Constitution provides that the election will be decided by a majority vote in the House of Representatives, with each state’s delegation casting one vote.

• Faithless Electors: electors who don’t vote for the party candidate they pledged to vote for

• Runoff Election: second election/people revote when a candidate does not receive clear majority

• If no Presidential candidate reaches 270 votes then how is the outcome determined-Congress:

  • Representatives decides President

  • Senators decides Vice President

Going Public

presidency term

• “going public” has become an essential part of presidential power. A president with visible national public support can increase his overall prestige within Washington as well as his influence on a specific issue.

  • By rallying public opinion, pressure can be brought on official Washington—usually Congress—to bypass a bill and support the chief executive.

• major result of the president’s powers and roles is his influence over mass opinion; the president’s visibility, as a symbol of the nation and as a single human being compared with a frequently impersonal government, gives the chief executive a great deal of public support in the political game.

Examples:

• Press conferences (most frequent), Tv interviews, Social media

• Franklin D. Roosevelt; Fireside Chats

  • Pushing for the passage of New Deal legislation

• Donald Trump; social media, daily tweets

  • Took control of the entire news cycle for that day

Power to Persuade

presidency term

• based on prestige 

  • If you are a popular president, then people want you to campaign them / if you aren’t, people do not want you to come to their district 

  • More popular = more power  

• Presidential Coattails: If you are a popular president, your coattails are long  

  • Elected officials will benefit by belonging to the same candidate as a popular president candidate  

6 Roles of Presidency

• commander in chief

• chief executive

• chief of state

• chief diplomat

• chief legislator

• party leader

1. Commander in Chief: head of military

   1. congress holds the power to declare war, but president often initiates nation’s involvement in international conflicts and congress supports it by appropriating money/funding for armed forces 

2. Chief Executive: ability to carry out and execute laws

   1. His directive illustrated the president’s authority as chief executive, which comes from Article II: “The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America.”

3. Chief of State: nation’s symbol

4. Chief Diplomat: power to establish relations with foreign governments

   1. the president has the power to establish relations with foreign governments, to appoint U.S. ambassadors, and to sign treaties that take effect with the consent of two-thirds of the Senate. Because of its involvement in treaties and need to approve executive appointments, the Senate has been the legislative chamber most involved in foreign affairs. But the Senate’s power to approve or reject treaties has been limited because most international agreements by the United States never reach the Senate

5. Chief Legislator: power of the (no line-item) veto, lobbying for legislation support

   1. If President disapproves of a bill passed by Congress, he may refuse to sign it and return it to Congress with his objections; usually used to threaten to influence a bill while it is still being considered by Congress  

      1. Pocket veto: refusing to sign bill within 10 days of Congress adjourning  

      2. Congress may override President veto by 2/3 votes of those present and voting in each house 

   2. Lobbies the Hill for support; pressures individual members, offers to fund pet projects for their states, and tolerates changes in his bills to allow for local congressional interests.

6. Party Leader: head of political party

   1.  give him right to choose a VP after his own nomination, to distribute offices and favors to the party, and to demonstrate that he is trying to fulfill the party platform (the party’s program adopted at his nominating convention)

   • Chief campaigner + fundraiser for his party

Congress

1. Theories of Representation

2. Incumbency Advantage

3. Leadership in House and Senate

4. Committees

5. How A Bill Becomes Law

6. Redistricting

Theories of Representation

1. delegate theory 

• Congress members know what the people want and vote according to what the constituents want  

• It is rare to interact with congressmen and communicate our needs and wants  

• Make decisions based off political parties and trends  

• Primarily off of!! Works on demographics (religion, age) 

• Ex: catholic, pro life  

• Ex: older, medicare  

  2. trustee theory 

• Constituents trust that congressmen will do what they need to do 

  3. politico theory: 

• Combination of the two  

• Delegate theory – domestic affairs 

• Trustee theory – foreign affairs  

Incumbency Advantage

currently serving  

If you are a strategic politican, you will not run against an incumbent, only when there is an open seat (because the chances of winning are slim, rerunners are more typically winners) 

Incumbency Advantage  

• 1. !!!!!! Most important, name recognition  

• Voting for the familiar name 

• Jesse Jackson jr 

• 2. familiar with the law-making process and place  

• Have relationships in congress 

• Have favors owed because of relationships  

• Expertise in certain areas because of committee experience 

• Seniority (amount of time you’ve been there) 

  3. Money.  

• Giving money to the person who is projected to more likely win; candidate with more money will then definitely win 

  4. casework – constituency services  

• How congressman serves the public (acts as liaison between the people and federal government) 

• Win-win: people went to congress to try to communicate, congressman responses or at least an effort was made  

• 5. credit claiming – pork barrel/ing project 

• Bringing federal money into district  

• Fat on a bill that goes to different states  

• Congressmen bring money into state and then claim they were the reason 

• The Frank / franking privileges  

• Free mail (paid by taxpayers) 

• Postage paid  

• Congressmen tell what they have been doing in congress, what they sponsor and author to constituents  

• Score from interest groups included in the mail  

  7. access to media  

• Challenger has no access to media; they would have to do something sensational versus an incumbent who has high access 

  Experience running campaign  

Leadership in House and Senate

Congress: Leadership structure and operations 

• Congress 

• House 

• Speaker of the house: most powerful person because of his role in the house 

• 1. influences committee assignments (congressmen want to be on certain committees, usually those that benefit constituents) 

• 2. assign bills to committee (knowing whether committee will kill it or pass it influences their decision) 

• 3. determine who will be recognized on floor 

• 4. what and when bills go up for debate  

• Next in line, majority leader: right hand man for speaker of the house 

• Majority whip: tries to persuade congressmen to vote for majority party  

• responsible party government-votes for their party loyally  

• We do not have this because of influence of constituents—they vote based off they want because that's how they become reelected  

• Minority leader: very powerful, but it is potential power  

• Usually becomes speaker of the house (potential power) when party control switches  

• This is not automatic, there must be a vote  

• Minority whip: same as majority whip, just for the minority party  

• Senate 

• Majority leader: most powerful person in terms of everyday operation 

• Roles and responsibilities are the exact same as speaker of the house 

• Vice president: president of the senate  

• Tasked with breaking ties (lots of influence)  

• Do not preside over chambers/hearings because they are busy 

• Next in line, President pro tempore: longest serving member of the majority party in the senate  

• Acts as temporary president 

• Very old, doesn’t do grunt work 

• Junior senators: select people to preside over hearings  

• Prestigious position and honor to be selected  

How a Bill Becomes Law

• Bills can only be introduced into congress by a congressman  

1. Bill is assigned to committee, then subcommittee  

   1. Thats why we like to reelect, because they become experts  

2. Majority vote  

3. Bill then goes to rules committee in the house (no rules committee in the senate because they are a smaller group of 100, less unruly) sets the parameters for the debate about the bill  

4. House/senate floor: bill goes to floor for debate  

   1. Leaves with majority vote/approval once more 

5. Conference committee: senate and house members revise the bill before sending it out to president 

   1. Do not happen dead last, steps may overlap with one another  

6. Bill goes back to floor of house/senate for a vote 

   1. Nothing can be added; must vote up or down as it is  

      1. If the bill is voted yes, bill goes to president  

7. Sign it or veto the bill  

   1. If 10 days goes by and the president doesn’t do anything and the congress is still in house, the bill becomes law 

   2. If 10 days goes by and congress adjourns and the president doesn’t do anything, a pocket veto occurs  

• Filibuster: unlimited debate during proposal of legislation on senate floor

• Theres a bill they are considering to debate, and senator talks and talks nonsense because people cannot vote until he is done  

• Stall vote of a bill or nominee so that whips can walk around to get them to vote a certain way  

• Cloture vote: how to end filibuster, 60 votes / 3/5  

Committees

• Standing committee: permanent, align with different bureaucracies, everything happens in these committees  

• Joint committee: composed of house members and senators, deal with logistics on the Hill (what should the hours be for the library of congress, etc.), not very influential  

• Conference committee: composed of house members and senators; very important because they receive the house and senate version of bill, and work to make one bill from it (compromise, cut things out, add things, to ensure both groups are happy and there are no unhappy differences with what will be submitted to congress)  

• Special/select committee: temporary, put together when they are need and disband when they are no longer needed  

Redistricting

redrawing of district lines

• Who typically does redistricting?

  • State legislatures

• What are the things considered/criteria for redistricting?

  • Compact

  • Contiguous (cannot be broken up)

  • Consistent with interests

  • Consider political subdivision

  • Protect the incumbent congress member

• What is gerrymandering?

  • Redrawing of district lines for a political purpose/gain

• What is cracking?

  • Dividing up the minority into separate districts to weaken its influence

    • Diluting → disperses electoral strength

• What is packing?

  • Over-Concentrating electoral strength in a district

• What did the Voting Rights Amendments (1982) say about gerrymandering?

  • If the result of a districting plan is discriminatory it may still be unconstitutional as a result

• What did Miller v. Johnson (1995) decide about gerrymandering?

  • If race is a predominant factor in redistricting then it is unconstitutional

Party

1. Causes of Two Party System

   1. Historic Dualism (Federalists and Anti-federalists)

   2. Moderate Voter

   3. Electoral Structure

   4. Self Perpetuation

   5. Flexibility of Parties

2. Divided Government

   1. Policy inaction/Gridlock

   2. Scandalmongering

   3. Blame Game

   4. Accountability Issues

3. Partisan Realignment

   1. shift in electoral base of party system, Solid South and emergence of Dixiecrats as a result of the end of radical reconstruction (1877-1990)

Judiciary

1. Strengths and Weaknesses

   1. Strengths:

      1. Prestige: being a judge is seen by society as an honorable position

      2. Fragmentation of power 

      3. Law: lawyers learn a language that laypeople don’t know. Other lawyers serve as constituents to the court, vested interest in making the court legitimate. 

   2. Weaknesses:

      1. Requires there is an actual case/actual injured party, lawsuit against state, foreign diplomat—other cases go to lower courts

      2. Does not resolve political questions, only concerned whether case is constitutional.    

      3. Relies on precedent/state decisions. 

         • Consistency, continuity, stability across decisions.

2. Judicial Activism and Restraint

   1. Judicial Activism: “liberal” approach; judges base decision on personal view and current, broader societal implications

      1. very active, Court should be a creative partner with the legislative and executive branches in shaping government policy; seek to apply the Court’s authority to solving economic and political problems ignored by other parts of the government.

   2. Judicial Restraint: “conservative” approach; judges base decision strictly on historical documents (constitution, periodicals, and federalist papers-federalist biased, propaganda)

      1. very passive, allows other branches to take care of issues: the Court should not impose its views on other branches of the government or on the states unless there is a clear violation of the Constitution.

3. Judicial Review

   1. established by Marbury v Madison by John Marshall-first time the Court struck down an act of Congress

4. Jurisdiction: a court’s authority to hear cases and make legal decisions. Jurisdiction refers not only to a court’s geographic scope, but also whether there is a federal or state question at hand. 

   1. supreme court jurisdiction determined by parties includes cases involving ambassadors and other foreign representatives, controversies in which the United States is a party, and controversies between two or more states or between a state or citizen of the United States and a foreign citizen or state

      1. district courts: courts with original jurisdiction is the first court to hear and decide a case. 

      2. appellate courts: courts with appellate jurisdiction reviews decisions made by lower courts.

      3. Supreme Court: original and appellate jurisdiction

         1. memorandum orders—The method by which the Supreme Court decides most cases without the need for oral arguments.

         2. Writ of certiorari—An order to the lower court to send the entire record of a case to the higher court for review.

5. Political Institution

   1. final decision of constitutionality of decisions and laws

6. Recruitment

   1. Administration sends president of potential nominees for president to choose

   2. President chooses someone and formally nominates them

   3. President sends nomination to senate

   4. Once it arrives at the senate, it goes to the senate judiciary committee

   5. Committee (1-2 senators) meets with nominee and ask any questions

   6. Senators come out with majority vote

   7. Nominee sent to full senate

   8. Full senate comes out with majority vote

   9. Nominee goes to president

   10. President signs commission

   11. Commission must be delivered to nominee (learned this in marbury vs madison)

   President bases choice on: 

   1. Political party 

   2. Qualifications (don’t have to be a lawyer to be a judge, but usually include being a lawyer) 

   3. Ideology

Electoral Participation

1. Who Votes?

   1. socioeconomic status

      1. education is the most important factor!

      2. higher income = more social circles that care or are involved in politics

   2. age

      1. As you get older, you become more familiar with the voting process, no trepidation with going  

      2. As you get older, you become attached to a party (you have seen how it goes with one or another party is in power)  

      3. Older people’s social circles-you'll know people who will be elected officials and motivate you to become more engaged 

      4. 18-25 year olds vote the least (i believe)

   3. gender

      1. Gender= 1920, 19^th amendment women gained the right to vote (1870 = universal male suffrage)  

      1. When they did begin to vote as their husbands told them, not much independence, first years; its equaling out now

   4. race

      1. White Americans vote more until you control for SES  

      1. If you are comparing a white and black person who have the same education and income level, they voted at the same right 

      2. However, there are more racial minorities that are lower SES, so white americans vote more remains true because they are higher SES 

   5. marriage

      1. Married couples vote more because they are more stable in residential status, have children, more issues that affect them (healthcare, childcare) 

   6. Profile of American voter 

   1. White 

   2. Married 

   3. Male 

   4. Older  

   5. Wealthier than others 

   6. Well, educated  

2. Vote Choice

   1. Number one cue used when choosing to vote for someone: party ID 

      1. R or D by name 

   2. Voting based on issues 

      1. Single issue voters: one issue they are particularly passionate about, all they need to know is that candidate’s stance on that and vote based on that alone  

      2. e.g., abortion, capital punishment, immigration stances  

   3. Candidate evaluation 

      1. Will actually research candidates before making a decision to vote (research congress and congressional candidates-governor and senator--> name recognition)  

      2. seen as “sophisticated” voters 

3. Passive Consent-theory of low voter turnout

   1. “I don’t vote because my life is fine!” → “Whether there is a democrat or republican in office, my life doesn’t really change”

      • Uninformed

        • People that are not voting, are not informed → so some people are happy that we have low voter turnout because only the “informed” vote

        • BUT we’ve seen that even some people that vote aren’t informed either

4. Motor Voter Law/Universal Registration Act (1995)

   1. Allowed absentee voting (a vote cast by a person who, because of absence from usual voting district, illness, or the like, has been permitted to vote by mail.)

   2. Registration for voting with drivers license

   3. Very effective in raising registration numbers

   4. Did not really make a difference in voting turn out

Media

1. Role of Media

   1. 4th branch of government

   2. Information source  

   3. Gatekeeper: decides what we and wont pay attention to  

      1. What we know about, what we think matters, what we are concerned about 

   4. Agenda setting: Agenda-setting means presenting national priorities—what should be taken seriously, what should be taken lightly, and what can be ignored altogether. “The media can’t tell people what to think,” one expert put it, “but they can tell people what to think about.” The attention the media give to the pandemic, climate change, or the war in Ukraine will affect how important most people think these issues are. The headlines at the top of a news webpage or the lead on the evening newscast make some events, issues, or people more significant than others.

   5. framing: Framing defines problems, suggesting how we should see issues. Media coverage can present, or frame, an issue in many ways.

   6. Watchdog  

      1. Watchdog journalism is a form of investigative journalism where journalists, authors or publishers of a news publication fact-check and interview political and public figures to increase accountability in democratic governance systems.

   7. Sensationalization 

      1. Stories they Have Access to 

      • Stories they can simplify  

2. Known As What (???)

   1. Media are those means of communication that permit messages to be made public.

   2. paid media versus earned media

3. Narrowcasting

   1. a communication strategy that targets specific, defined groups rather than the general public. This contrasts with broadcasting, which aims to reach a wide audience. It's about delivering information or messages directly to particular segments of the population, like supporters of a candidate or voters with specific interest

   2. But in a more competitive marketplace, this has changed. Media outlets have turned to narrowcasting in their programming. Networks like Fox News and MSNBC accept that their politically biased content will not appeal to all (or even most) Americans, but they adopt an agenda and frames that are tailored for a particular group of viewers. So on the same night, Fox may run stories blaming rising inflation on the Biden administration, while MSNBC covers Republicans’ role in the January 6, 2021 storming of the Capitol. (See “The Fox Effect.”)

Campaigns

1. Successful Campaigns

   1. Money (is king) 

   2. Able to get media coverage  

   3. Produce and pay for commercials 

   4. Advertise  

   5. Schedule time effectively  

      1. Have to be choosy (e.g., if you are a republican skip text; if you are a democrat, skip texas—or at least plan really well, do fundarising and get out quickly) 

      2. Cant win those states but may be able to get some money  

   6. Convey position on issues  

   7. Opposition research  

      1. researching/Finding any dirt on your opponent you can use against them (bad vote to true scandal)  

2. Political Consultants Job: political consultant is a professional who provides advice and strategic guidance to individuals, organizations, or campaigns involved in political activities. They offer expertise in areas like campaign planning, public relations, media strategy, research, and fundraising. Essentially, they help navigate the complexities of politics and help clients achieve their political goal

   1. Develop strategy  

   2. Develop campaign theme/slogan 

   3. Campaign colors  

      1. Primarily red white and blue but sometimes can be different 

   4. Monitor campaign progress  

   5. Polls (where do you need to go, what do you need to say, etc based on what the people say) 

   6. Plan media appearances 

   7. Coach candidates for debates  

      1. Have someone act as your opponent as they try to coach you (appearances and talks)  

      2. ex: reagan or bush?

3. Negative Campaigning: the strongest approach to campaigning; however, most politicians try to not use unless the race is tight  

   • People tend to focus on the negative (scandals) over the positive (accomplishments, strengths) 

   • Examples: trump against barac obama (wasn't born in the US); clinton (scandalous emails); harris (son’s, hunter’s, laptop)  

   • All hurt their standing in the race in some effective way

Civil Liberties

1. Bill of Rights

2. Types of Speech

   1. Protected: Political speech, symbolic speech.

      1. Political speech: involves verbal or written communication about public issues and political figures

      2. Symbolic speech: conveys messages through actions, symbols, or conduc

   2. Not Protected: Libel, obscenity, incitement.

      1. libel: published false statement that is damaging to a person's reputation; a written defamation

      2. obscenity: material, acts, or expressions that are offensive, vulgar, or morally repugnant, often with a sexual focus. It is a legal term that designates certain depictions of sex that are not protected by the First Amendment. Obscenity laws vary by state, but generally aim to prohibit lewd or extremely offensive words or pictures in public.

      3. incitement: act of provoking, urging, or stirring up another person to commit a crime or other undesirable action; encouraging someone to do something wrong, either through words, actions, or implications. In legal terms, incitement can be a crime in itself, especially when it leads to violence or other illegal activities. 

3. Establishment Clause

   1. The Establishment Clause of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibits the government from establishing or endorsing a religion. It ensures a separation between church and state, preventing the government from favoring one religion over another or creating a situation where religious beliefs are forced upon individual

4. Free Exercise Clause

   1. The Free Exercise Clause of the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution protects individuals' rights to practice their religion freely, without government interference. It prohibits the government from making laws that prohibit or impede the free exercise of religion. This protection extends to both religious beliefs and practices, but it's not absolute.

   2. examples: https://www.uscourts.gov/about-federal-courts/educational-resources/educational-activities/first-amendment-activities/engel-v-vitale/similar-cases-engel-v-vitale

Bill of Rights

habeas corpus: a writ requiring a person under arrest to be brought before a judge or into court, especially to secure the person's release unless lawful grounds are shown for their detention.

Civil Rights (Era)

1. Two Phases of Reconstruction

   1. Presidential Reconstruction (1865-1867) 

      1. period from 1865 to 1867 when President Andrew Johnson oversaw the reintegration of the former Confederate states into the Union. Johnson's plan built upon Lincoln's Ten Percent Plan and focused on restoring the political status quo in the South as quickly as possible.

      2. Ten Percent Plan, also known as Lincoln's Reconstruction plan, was a proposal by President Lincoln to facilitate the readmission of Confederate states into the Union after the Civil War. It outlined that a state could rejoin the Union once 10% of its voting population took an oath of allegiance to the United States. This oath was a crucial step for those states to begin forming new governments

   2. Congressional/Radical Reconstruction (1867-1877) 

   3. hase of Reconstruction in the United States that focused on establishing the political and civil rights of formerly enslaved people in the South, according to the U.S. House of Representatives: History, Art & Archives (.gov). It was characterized by the efforts of Radical Republicans in Congress to implement more stringent conditions for the readmission of Confederate states into the Union and to ensure the rights of African Americans

2. Solid South

   1. post reconstruction, Solid South (Democrat) never voted for Republican because of reconstruction

   2. Solid South was the electoral voting bloc for the Democratic Party in the Southern United States between the end of the Reconstruction era in 1877 and the Civil Rights Act of 1964.^[1][2] In the aftermath of the Compromise of 1877 and the failure of the Lodge Bill of 1890, Southern Democrats disenfranchised nearly all blacks in all the former states of the Confederate States of America during the late 19th century and the early 20th century.^[3]

      During this period, the Democratic Party controlled southern state legislatures and most local, state and federal officeholders in the South were Democrats. This resulted in a one-party system, in which a candidate's victory in Democratic primary elections was tantamount to election to the office itself. White primaries were another means that the Democrats used to consolidate their political power, excluding blacks from voting.

3. Civil Rights Amendments

   1. 13th (abolish slavery)

   2. 14th (equal protection)

      1. 1868 citizenship, due process, equal protection-any states who seceded from the union had to ratify 14^th amendment to join back 

   3. 15th (universal male voting rights)

   4. (Women got voting rings in1920 with the 19^th amendment)

4. Catalyst for Civil Rights Movement

   1. Brown V board of education 

      1. 1954 / 1955  (two trials because they didnt do it the first time-second one aiffrmed it with deliberate speed) 

      2. Overturned plessy v ferguson  

      3. Doll test – thurgood marshall used to support the psychological, tangible impacts of separation “separate is inheently unequal 

      4. Our schools are more segrated today than back then because of money and where people are live, distrcting  

   2. Rosa parks  

      1. Began montgomery bus boycott 1955 

      2. Could not accept rides from employers to get to work to sacrifice for boycott  

      3. Collective action effort that could not be replicated  

      4. Effort created a civil rights leader – martin luther king jr    

   3. Emmet till – 1955 

      1. Open casket funeral 

      2. Images went from black owned magazine to times, pictures went international 

      3. Height of cold war  

5. Civil Rights Act 1964

   1. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was a landmark civil rights and labor law in the United States that outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, and national origin. It prohibited discrimination in employment, public accommodations, federally assisted programs, and voting. The act was signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson on July 2, 1964. 

6. Voting Rights Act of 1965

   1. No prequesites to voting (gender, race, ethncity, etc.)