Psych 104 Final Exam - Scully UAlberta 2023

Sigmund Freud

Founder of psychoanalysis and focused on the unconscious mind

Psychodynamic Theory

Freudian theory that unconscious forces determine behavior
- Impulses want to be expressed
- Defenses want to hold impulses back

Abraham Maslow

Originator of the hierarchy of needs and focused on personal growth

Humanistic Theory

Prioritizing personal growth with the hierarchy of needs

Hierarchy of Needs

Pyramid of needs growing toward "Self-Actualization" (reaching your "full potential")

B. F. Skinner

Radical Behaviourism - nature sand nurture effect who you are. Behaviour modification.

Correlation

look for relationship between variables. Correlation is NOT Causation

Positive Correlation

Increase in one variable relates to an increase in the other

Negative Correlation

Increase in one variable relates to a decrease in the other

Experiment

Only way to infer causality

Correlation vs Experiment

Correlation looks for a mutual relationship between variables. Experiment looks for the causal relationship between variables

Classical Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov - a neutral stimulus comes to signal the occurrence of another stimulus

Unconditioned Stimulus

Biologically significant stimulus that already has a response associated with it

Conditioned Stimulus

Previously Neutral Stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response

Unconditioned Response

Response associated with Unconditioned Stimulus

Conditioned Response

With enough pairings of the conditioned response with an unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned stimulus will come to elicit the same response as the paired unconditioned response

Operant Conditioning

Learning that is controlled by the consequences of the organism's behaviour

Classical vs Operant Conditioning

Classical - Automatic, stim that precede behaviour, Autonomic NS
Operant - Voluntary, consequences that follow behaviour, skeletal muscles

Reinforcement

Any outcome that strengthens the probability of a response

Positive Reinforcement

Consequences consist of presenting something pleasant

Negative Reinforcement

Consequences consist of removing something unpleasant

Discriminative Stimulus

Any stimulus that signals the availability of reinforcement

Continuous Reinforcement

Every "correct" response is reinforced

Partial Reinforcement

Only some "correct" responses are reinforced

"Fixed" Partial Reinforcement

Reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses or fixed time interval

"Variable" Partial Reinforcement

Reinforcement occurs after an average number of responses of passage of time

"Ratio" Partial Reinforcement

Certain percentage of responses are reinforced

"Interval" Partial Reinforcement

Certain amount of time must elapse between reinforcements

"Fixed Ratio Schedule" Partial Reinforcement

Reinforcement given after a "FIXED" number of responses

"Variable Ratio Schedule" Partial Reinforcement

Reinforcement given after a "VARIABLE" number of responses, centered around an average

"Fixed Interval Schedule" Partial Reinforcement

First correct response after a fixed time interval is reinforced

"Variable Interval Schedule" Partial Schedule

Reinforcement given for first correct response after a variable time interval, centered around an average

H.M. Case Study

- Bilateral temporal lobectomy (Remove hippocampus, amygdala, and other stuff).
- Working memory does NO require medial temporal structures
- Declarative memory and Procedural memory are different systems

Ghrelin

INCREASE appetite

Leptin

DECREASES appetite

Hunger as a Motivator

Expectation that eating will be pleasurable and will reduce hunger

Hypothalamus (Motivation)

Plays a roll in regulating hunger, thirst, sexual arousal, and body temperature

Random Sampling

- Similarity of pop doesn't matter
- Multiple experiments can be conducted on different samples, if results are similar, more generalizability
- Similarity of sample and pop is sometimes reasonable

Hearing

- Sound as a Stimulus
- Sound waves are vibrations of molecules that travel through a medium (eg. air)

Frequency (Hearing)

Measured in cycles per second or hertz

Wavelength (Hearing)

Measured in distance (e.g., mm, cm, m)

Amplitude (Hearing)

Measured in decibels

Purity (Hearing)

Sound envelope

Place Theory (Hearing)

Perception of pitch corresponds to the vibration of different PORTIONS along basilar membrane

Frequency Theory (Hearing)

Perception of pitch corresponds to the rate at which the ENTIRE basilar membrane vibrates

Vision

- Light as a Stimulus
- A form of electromagnetic radiation that travels as a wave

Amplitude (Light)

Affects perception of brightness

Wavelength (Light)

Affects perception of colour

Action Potential

Cell is stimulated and electrical charges flow across cell membrane

Sympathetic Nervous System

Fight or Flight response

Autonomic Nervous System

Rest and Digest system

Stages of Sleep

1. Light Sleep (1-10 mins)
2. Deeper Sleep (10-25 mins)
3 & 4. Deeper Sleep after (10-30 mins)
5. Rapid Eye Movement (REM) Sleep

Stage 1 Sleep

Light Sleep - alpha/beta waves transition to theta waves

Stage 2 Sleep

Deeper Sleep - brain waves decelerate, heat rate slows, body temp. decreases, muscles relax, eye movement ceased

Stage 3 & 4 Sleep

Deeper Sleep - Appearance of delta waves

Stage 5 Sleep

Rapid Eye Movement (REM) - 20-25% of night's sleep. Cycles last 20-60min.

Structuralism

- breaks down mind into individual parts
- breaks consciousness into STRUCTURAL components
- Introspection - "look within"

Functionalism

- study the FUNCTION of consciousness
- gave way to other psychological ideologies

Humanism

- Self-Actualization
- Abraham Maslow

Depressant (Drug)

Depress the effects of the central nervous system. Sedative - calming. Hypnotic - sleep inducing.

Stimulant (Drug)

"Rev" (excite) central nervous system

Opiate/Narcotics (Drug)

Relieve pain and induce sleep

Insomnia

Chronic difficulty in falling asleep, staying asleep, or experiencing restful sleep

Narcolepsy

Experience episodes of sudden sleep

Sleep Apnea

Blockage of airway interrupts sleep

Night Terrors

Sudden waking episodes characterized by screaming, perspiring, and confusion, followed by a return to deep sleep

Sleepwalking

Episodes where a person walks while asleep

Sensory Memory

Briefly holds sensory information

Sensory Registers

Subsystems of sensory memory; initial information processors

Types of Sensory Registers

- Iconic Store - Holds VISUAL information
- Echoic Store - Holds AUDITORY information

Short-Term Memory

Temporarily stores and processes a limited amount if information in consciousness

Information Storage in Short-Term Memory

Visually (Images), Phonologically (Sound), Semantically (Meaning), Action (Motor Patterns)

Chunking (Memory)

Group units into larger "bits"

Maintenance vs Elaborative Rehearsal

Maintenance - Repetition
Elaborative - Meaning

Working Memory

Limited-capacity system for storage and manipulation of information for complex tasks

Long-Term Memory

Durable storage of past events and learned knowledge

Declarative Memory

- CAN be verbalized
- Episodic (personal experiences) and Semantic (general factual knowledge)

Procedural Memory

- CANNOT be verbalized
- Skills and actions

Anterograde Amnesia

Loss of ability to retain NEW knowledge

Retrograde Amnesia

Loss of ability to remember PAST knowledge

Serial Position Effect (Memory)

Describes relationship between a word's position in a list and its probability of recall

Primacy Effect (Memory)

Remember things at the BEGINNING of the list

Recency Effect (Memory)

Remember things at encountered MOST RECENTLY (end of list)

Effortful Processing (Memory)

Intentional, effortful conscious process

Automatic Processing

Unintentional process requiring minimal attention

Levels of Processing (Memory)

Structural, Phonemic, Semantic

Mnemonic Devices (Memory)

Mental strategies that aid in remembering information

Simple Mnemonic Devices

Hierarchies - Organize items based on how related they are
Chunking - Combine items into larger units of meaning

Visual-Based Mnemonics

Weird pictures. Interacting images

Semantic Mnemonics

First-Letter Technique - ROY G BIV
Narrative Technique - Tell a story

Complex Mnemonics

Method of Loci - Link what you need to remember with a place that you know well (real or not)

Associative Networks (Memory)

Theory that memory can be represented as a network of associated concepts. Each concept represented by a node and connected with lines representing association

Priming (Memory)

The activation of a concept by another. Exposure to one stimulus influences a response to a subsequent stimulus without guidance or intention

Neutral Networks (Memory)

Unlinked nodes. Pattern/Set of nodes activated together

Retrieval (Memory)

Process of transferring information from LTM back into working memory (consciousness)

Distinctiveness (Memory)

Things that stand out are more easily recalled

Flashbulb Memories

Memory for the circumstances in which you first learned about a very surprising and emotionally arousing event (e.g., 9/11)

Cued Recall (Memory)

Cues: Stimuli that lead to activation of information stored in LTM.
Multiple cues = better retrieval

Matching Conditions (Memory)

Retrieval may be increased by matching conditions of retrieval to conditions that existed at encoding

Encoding Specificity (Memory)

Learn information together with its context (e.g., learn how to drive in a car, not reading "how to drive" on paper while sitting in a stationary chair)