Two main needs of organisms -- excretory system and
Osmoregulation -- maintain H2O balance
Removal of toxic substances -- dilute these with H2O
Catabolic reactions
Breaks down; hydrolytic reaction
Anabolic reaction
To build, so synthesize; dehydration synthesis
Egestion
Undigested waste, feces
Excretion
Removal of metabolic waste, cell waste
Metabolic wastes
Waste created through metabolism of cells
Main metabolic waste
CO2: cell respiration -- catabolic, breaking down of glucose
H2O: cell respiration or any dehydration synthesis reaction
Salt: neutralization reactions, acid + base
Nitrogenous wastes: protein metabolis
Protein metabolism
Break down protein/amino acids and produces nitrogenous wastes
Deamination (liver)
Breaks apart amino acids → ammonia
NH3: ammonia
Very toxic
Must be diluted
To dilute -- 1NH3: 1,000,000 H20
then need to excrete out of the organism
Marine organisms
Urea
Land organisms
Ammonia → (convert) → urea
Uses a lot of ATP
to dilute - 1 Urea: 100,000 H2O
Uric acid
Not soluble in H2O
No/minimal H2O lost
Large ATP cost
Reptile, birds, insects, desert creatures (not camels)
Comes out as a white paste
Four main excretory organs
Kidney
urine → urea, water, salt
Liver
salt [bile]
Skin
sweat (water/salt), urea
Lungs
CO2, water
What does the skin do?
Protects our body
Physical
Pathogens (disease-causing organisms)
Chemical protection
Radiation (melanin absorption/ UV)
Thermoregulation – maintains body temperature
Waterproof
Sensations
Vitamin D production
Stores energy
Liver performs many functions, including the production of urea:
Deamination → secretion of NH3
NH3 → Urea
Creates bile
How many kidneys do you need?
You can survive with one but it is better to have two
Functions of the kidney
Filter Blood – MAIN FUNCTION
Once the unclean blood enters, the kidneys filter it, and out comes urine and clean blood
Regulates blood pressure
Through water retention (holds onto water)
Red blood cell production (control of rbc production – don’t actually make them)
Monitors blood cell count
Erythropoietin (EPO) – a hormone that the kidney sends to the blood marrow to tell it to make more RBC
High altitude results in less oxygen in the air so your body needs to make more which makes more EPO and makes more RBC
Regulates pH
What could kidney stones be due to?
Diet or genetics
Dialisis
external kidney, a machine does the filtering of blood for you and the clean blood goes back in
How much urine does your kidney produce a day and what does the color of your urine say about your drinking habits?
It makes about 1L of urine per day. If your urine isn’t clear, your a probably dehydrated.
Bladder
Fills up
Has stress receptors on it telling you that you have to go to the bathroom
Not good to keep stretching out your bladder and letting it get full because it will lose its elasticity
Sphincter at the bottom prevents bladder from bursting
Bacterial infections (bladder)
Bacterial goes up the urethra
UTI: bacterial infection of the urinary tract
If left untreated it could cause kidney failure
Nephron
Functional unit of kidney that cleans blood and makes urine
Three processes nephron uses to clean blood and create urine/filtrate
Filtration
Reabsorption
Secretion
Filtration
Happens between blood ball of capillaries (called glomerulus) and bowman's capsule
Works because of blood pressure
Passive transport – no energy used here
Non-selective – don’t differentiate good vs bad
Sort by size
All the small stuff goes in the Bowman’s capsule (Urea, H2O K+, Amino acids, creatine, salt, glucose)
Glucose, amino acids, and H2O shouldn’t be thrown out and the body will have to take them back
Big chunky stuff like RBC and WBC remains in the blood vessels/capillaries
Reabsorption
Specific – use specific protein channel (passive)/pumps (active)
Passive and active depending on what you are going to use
Tubule → blood
Take back the good stuff that got filtered and pull it out of the filtrate
Substances reabsorbed
H2O – osmosis – passive
Glucose – active (w/ pumps)
Salt – X factor (can do anything) – passive/active
Body moves it around in order to move the water, changes tonicity
Amino acids – active
Secretion
Throw out more bad stuff (toxins/drugs)
Blood → tubule
Selective and active
Filtrate
Stuff in the nephron tubule, stuff that is supposed to be garbage
Nephron tonicity
Blood is hyper and Bowman’s capsule is hypo so that water flows into the blood vessels
Cortex (region of kidney)
Top part
Less salty
Distal tubule
Everything that’s left that’s good comes out, only waste should remain
Medulla (region of the kidney)
Bottom part
Salty
Loop of Henle
Collecting duct
Loop of Henle
Descending
Only permeable to water, eventually reaches equilibrium
Ascending
Salt removal (active) to make the inside hypo
Not permeable to water
Collecting duct
Has extra channels in it that only open when ADH (antidiuretic – stops you from peeing) opens them so that water can come out
When ADH goes down, you pee more
When it goes up, you retain the water
Caffeine and alcohol blocks ADH causing you to pee more
ADH hormone (antiduretic)
controls the rate of water excretion
released for posterior pituitary gland
acts when the body is in a state of under-hydration and needs to retain water
causes more water to be reabsorbed by collecting ducts
Vena Cava
Veins that bring blood to the right atria/heart
Atria
Receive blood from the body
Left atrium
Pumps blood to the whole body
Right Atrium
Pumps blood to the lungs
Pulmonary artery
Brings blood to the lungs, only deoxygenated artery
Pulmonary vein
Only oxygenated vein in the body
Aorta
Largest blood vessel, under the most pressure
Which side of the heart is deoxygenated and which is oxygenated?
Right side -- deoxygenated
Left side -- oxygenated
Autorhythmic
Can generate its own electrical impulse and can contract on its own. The heart is autorhythmic.
Needs of organisms/cells
Get O2, H2O, glucose, nutrients
Removed CO2, nitrogenous (waste)
How do single celled organisms get nutrients and get rid of wastes?
Through diffusion and active transport. It can do this stuff since it is in contact with the environment.
Multicellular organisms use ___________ to get nutrients and remove wastes.
circulatory system
Parts of the circulatory system
Pump -- “heart”
Tubes -- “blood vessels“
road ways
Liquid - holds “stuff“ -- “blood“
Arteries and Arterioles
carry blood away from the heart
Oxygenated
high pressure
Veins and venules
carry blood to the heart
Deoxygenated blood
Low pressure
Capillaries
next to every cell
One cell thick
Exchange of substances between the blood and the interstitial fluid occurs in several ways
Non-polar molecules (O2 and CO2) diffuse through the epithelial cells of the capillary wall
Larger molecules may be carried across an epithelial cell in vesicles formed by endocytosis on one side of the cell and release their contents by exocytosis on the other side
Water and small solutes (sugars and salts) can move freely through the pores in the wall and narrow clefts between the epithelial cells making up the wall -- the capillary wall is leaky
Blood pressure
how much force the blood is exerting on the walls of the arteries
Normal: 20/80
Systolic 20 means the heart is contracting/expanding
Diastolic 80 means the heart is relaxing
Why do veins and arteries dilate?
Because they have smooth muscles
What can smooth muscle do?
Moves around blood and has the ability to dilate as well as constrict
What do blood vessels on the skin’s surface do?
They dilate to remove heat from body into the environment
Drinking alcohol increases this.
What do your veins do when it’s cold out?
They constrict to maintain body temperature
What is the only blood vessel where exchange with cells occur?
Capillary
Which blood vessel is on the surface and which is deeper? Why?
Veins are on the surface and arteries are deeper so that they are better protected.
Which has less smooth muscle, the veins or the arteries?
The veins
What does the valve do?
It prevents backflow
What is the result of the extremely low pressure in the veins?
It makes it hard to move blood valves however the wideness of the veins helps with that.
Why is the capillary under pressure? And why do you want this?
It is under pressure because it is narrow and you want it narrow so things move slower allowing diffusion to occur.
What does interstitial fluid do?
It acts as a buffer for the cells and allows us to maintain homeostasis
What does the constant movement of the blood vessels allow?
It allows for the maintaining of the concentration gradient by allowing diffusion to occur.
What are varicose veins?
When the valve malfunctions so the vein twists on itself and goes to the surface of the skin.
What is always placed next to a vein?
Contractile-type things like muscles are next to veins so the moving muscles can squeeze the veins to allow blood to move. <-- voluntary
What does aspirin do?
It dilates and thins blood
Angioplasty
Inflate balloon to press plaque up against edge of blood vessel to create space
What is a heart murmur? What does it mean? How could you cure it?
It is a faulty valve in the heart.
It means that there is sometimes backflow.
Up until a human reaches a certain age, it can fix itself. After that, you will need a valve replacement.
Thoracic Cavity
Area of the heart, lungs, ribcage, diaphragm
Pericardium
Membrane surrounding the heart
fluid that lubricates heart results in less friction during heat beats
SA (sinoatrial) node
Group of cells that act as the “pacemaker“
Can be influenced by the brain
the pacemaker which sets the rate at which all the muscle cells of your heart contract
Located on the upper wall of your right atrium
It generates electrical impulses
Sequence of electrical events in the heart
Signals from the SA node spread through both atrium so they contract in unison
Impulses pass to a relay point called the AV node (located between the RA and RV) which delay the signal about 0.1 second before the ventricles contract
Specialized muscle fibers relay the signals to the apex of the heart and up through the walls of the ventricles triggering the strong contractions that drive blood out of the heart
What’s a normal bpm?
40-60 bpm
Heart attack
Cells die in heart due to a lack of O2 -- a blockage prevents the cells from getting O2 which kills them
damage or death of cardiac muscle tissue usually as a result of blockage of blood vessels
Electrical shocks applied to the chest by a defibrillator may reset the SA node and restore proper cardiac function
AED (automatic external defibrillators): designed to be used by laypeople and are placed in public places where they are easily accessible
Bypass surgery
Take blood vessel (vein) from another part of the body to replace the one in the area of the heart attack to increase blood flow in that area.
AV (atrioventricular) node
Tells ventricles to contract
ECG (electrocardiogram)
Shows the electrical impulse in the heart
Provides data about heart health such as the existence of arrhythmias
Arrhythmias: abnormal heart rhythms including heart rates that are too slow or fast and fibrillations (flutterings) of the atria or ventricles
Fibrillations may occur in a healthy heart when drugs such as caffeine cause a group of cells to generate heart beats outside the SA node
Tacchycardia
Heart beat is too fast (180 bpm)
Bradycardia
Heart beat is too low
What does an artificial pacemaker do?
It helps take over for a non-functional SA node
How much blood is there in human?
About 5L
What is the purpose of blood?
Transports O2
Immunity/ protection
Temperature
Thermoregulation
Red blood cells (erythrocytes)
Carry O2
Disc shape
Contain hemoglobin which combines O2 and is iron derivative
Anemia → low RBC/hemoglobin count
hectorite
Fatigue, internal bleeding
2-3 million RBC/sec
1 uL - 4 million RBC
lives 120 days
no nucleus or organelles
made in the bone marrow
Liver and spleen process out old ones
Polycethemia
too many RBC
caused by a tumor
Sickle-cell
turn moon shaped and become rigid
blocks blood vessels
resistant to malaria
White blood cells (Leukocytes)
80-90 years
Have all organelles, can leave circulatory system
Different types of WBC
Basophil
Eosinophil
Neutrophil
Lymphocyte
Monocyte
Defense and immpunity
Platelets
cell fragments
responsible for blood clotting
Why is the shape of the red blood cells important?
It increases the surface area thereby increasing the amount of diffusion that can occur
Systemic circulation
Heart→whole body→heart
Pulmonary circulation
heart→lungs→heart
Renal circulation
Heart→kidney→heart
Coronary circulation
Heart→heart→heart
hepatic circulation
Heart→liver→heart
Order of circulatory system
Arteries→arterioles→capillaries→venules→veins→vena cava→heart
Open circulatory system
called “open” because fluid is pumped through open-ended vessels and flows out among the tissues; there is no distinction between the circulatory fluid and the interstitial fluid
Closed circulatory system
the vessels keeping blood distinct from the interstitial fluid
Three kinds of vessels:
Arteries
Carry blood away from the heart to body organs and tissues
Capillaries
Convey blood between arteries and veins within each tissue
Veins
return blood to the heart
Often called the cardiovascular system
Human cardiovascular system
Blood leaves the heart through the pulmonary arteries that carry deoxygenated blood to the lungs and the aorta, which begins the oxygenated blood’s journey to the body tissues
Blood flows into the heart through pulmonary veins which bring oxygenated blood from the lungs and two large veins that carry blood from the body tissues
The superior vena cava returns deoxygenated blood to the heart from the upper body and the inferior vena cava brings it from the lower body
Atrioventricular (AV) valve
valves between the atria and ventricles
Semilunar valve
Located at the exit from each ventricle
Cardiac Cycle
the rhythmic sequence in which the heart contracts and relaxes
When the heart contracts: it pumps blood
when the heart relaxes: blood fills it’s chambers
Diastole (cardiac cycle phase) -- relaxed
blood flows into all four chambers; blood enters the RA and from the vena cava and the LA from the pulmonary artery, the AV valves are open and the semilunar valves are closed; lasts about 0.4 second and the ventricles nearly fill with blood