Psych/Soc MCAT

absolute threshold 

also known as the Just-Noticeable difference, it is the minimum difference in magnitude between two stimuli before one can perceive this difference

Webber’s law

the JND between two stimuli is constant proportion of the original stimulus intensity; larger stimuli require a greater absolute change to be perceived as different

signal detection theory

theory that explains that perception is influenced by both the intensity of a stimulus and the observer’s internal state, such as expectations, experience, and motivation 

sensory adaptation

a decrease in response to a stimulus over time 

visual pathway

retina —> optic nerve —> optic chiasm —> optic tracts —> lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus —> visual cortex in occipital lobe

parallel processing

the ability to simultaneously analyze and combine information regarding color, shape, and motion

feature detection

specialized cells in the brain that respond to specific features of a stimulus (lines, edges, motion, etc) 

outer ear

pinna, external auditory canal, tympanic membrane

middle ear

ossicles (malleus, incus, and stapes)

inner ear 

cochlea, vestibule, and semicircular canals 

auditory pathway

cochlea —> vestibulocochlear nerve —> medial geniculate nucleus of thalamus —> auditory cortex in temporal lobe

place theory

The location of a hair cell on the basilar membrane determines the perception of pitch. High frequencies stimulate hair cells at the base of the membrane, while low frequencies stimulate hair cells at the tip

somatosensation 

the detection of touch, pressure, vibration, pain, and temperature 

olfaction pathway

olfactory receptors —> olfactory bulb —> olfactory tract —> limbic system

proprioception 

ability to tell where one’s body is in space 

bottom-up processing

a method of information processing that starts with raw sensory input and builds up to a complete understanding

top down processing 

a cognitive process where your brain uses prior knowledge, expectations, and context to interpret new sensory information

Gestalt principles

ways the brain can infer missing parts of a picture when a picture is incomplete

1. good figure

2. similarity

3. closure

4. proximity

5. continuation - where there is an intersection between two or more objects, people tend to perceive each object as a single uninterrupted object

6. symmetry

Piaget’s stages of cognitive development

1. sensorimotor

2. preoperational

3. concrete operational

4. formal operational

sensorimotor stage (0-2 years) 

Infants learn about the world through their senses and motor actions, like touching, grasping, and looking. 

Key milestone - object permanence

preoperational stage (2-7 years)

children begin to use symbols, like words and images to represent things and engage in imaginative play

Key characteristics: egocentrism and centration

concrete operational stage (7-11 years) 

children start to think more logically about concrete events and can understand concepts like conservation. Begin to develop less egocentric thinking 

formal operational stage (12+ years)

adolescents and adults gain the ability to think abstractly, reason hypothetically, and consider multiple variables

Vygotsky's Sociocultural Development

proposes that cognitive development is social process, heavity influenced by interactions with more knowledgeable individuals, cultures, and languages.

Includes: More knowledgeable other, scaffolding, and zone of proximal development

more knowledgeable other 

refers to anyone with a higher understanding or skill level than the learning, such as an adult, a more skilled peer, or even a computer 

zone of proximal development

The space between what a child can do independently and what they can achieve with the guidance from an MKO. It is the area where the most effective learning occurs.

scaffolding

a teaching method where an MKO provides temporary support to a child to help them accomplish a task they couldn’t do on their own

Availability Heuristic

a mental shortcut where a person judges the likelihood of an event based on how easily examples or instances come to mind 

ex. overestimating the risk of shark attacks after watching news reports about them 

representativeness heuristic

a mental shortcut where a person judges the likelihood of something by comparing it to a mental prototype or stereotype they hold

ex. believing a quiet, studious person is more likely to be a librarian than a salesperson even though there are far more salespeople (ignoring the base rate)

confirmation bias 

the tendency to interpret new evidence as confirmation of one’s existing beliefs or theories 

hindsight bias

a cognitive bias where people believe, after an event has occurred, that the outcome was predictable or they they “knew it all along” even if there was little to no objective basis for this prediction beforehand

belief perseverance

the tendency to maintain a belief even when new, contradictory information is presented

Awake stage 

beta (alert) and alpha (relaxed) waves 

sleep stage 1

theta waves

sleep stage 2

theta waves, K-complexes, and sleep spindles

sleep stage 3 

delta waves

REM sleep

beta-like waves, muscle atonia, and dreaming

encoding

the process of putting new information into memory

iconic memory 

memory for visual information that normally lasts for less than a second

echoic memory

memory for auditory information and lasts for 3-4 seconds

short-term memory

This refers to the ability to hold a small amount of information in mind for a very short period, typically around 30 seconds, often represented by the 7-+2 rule

working memory 

a more active form of memory that involves manipulating memory, including processing and reasoning with it and then storing it 

long-term memory

This type of memory stores information for extended periods, potentially a lifetime. Divided into explicit and implicit memory

exclipit memory

this type of memory involves conscious recall of facts and events. It further subdivides into episodic and semantic memory

episodic memory 

a type of explicit memory in long term memory that are memories of specific personal experiences, like events, dates, and emotions 

semantic memory

a type of explicit memory in long term memory that includes general knowledge about the world, facts, and concepts

implicit memory

This type of long-term memory does not require conscious recall and is often procedural, like motor skills or habits learned through practice

forgetting 

loss of memory that can occur through interference, decay, or amnesia 

proactive interference

a type of forgetting in which old memories block new memories

retroactive interference

a type of forgetting in which new memories block old memories

decay 

the natural deterioration of memory over time 

amnesia

a more profound memory loss, often due to brain injury or trauma

nativist theory of language development

proposed by Chomsky, this is the idea that humans are born with innate capacity for language, a “language acquisition device” that allows them to quickly grasp the underlying rules of any language they are exposed to

Learning theory of language development 

proposed by BF Skinner and Albert Bandura, this theory states that language is learned through environmental interactions, specifically through imitation of others and positive reinforcement 

Interactionism theory of language development

The theory proposed by Vygotsky states that language development is a result of both biological predisposition and social interaction

cognitive theory of language development

theory proposed by Jean Piaget stating that language development is a component of overall cognitive development, with children using processes like assimilation and accommodation to understand and learn language

whorfian hypothesis

The theory that the language a person speaks influences their perception of the world. Includes lingustic determinism vs linguistic relativism

Broca’s area 

area of speech production found in the frontal lobe 

wernicke’s area

area of language comprehension found in the temporal lobe

classical conditioning

a type of learning where an organism learns to associate two stimuli, resulting in an involuntary, reflexive response being triggered by a new, previously neutral cue.

Pair an unconditioned stimulus that has an unconditioned response with neutral stimulus. Soon, the neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus and leads to a conditioned response.

operant conditioning 

a type of learning in which a voluntary behavior is modified by the consequences that follow it. The central idea behind this type of conditioning is that behaviors that are followed by favorable consequences are more likely to be repeated; behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences are less likely to be repeated 

positive reinforcement

a pleasant stimulus is added to increase the frequency of behavior

negative reinforcement

the removal of an aversive stimulus to increase the frequency of behavior

positive punishment 

an aversive stimulus is added to decrease the frequency of behavior 

negative punishment

the removal of a pleasant stimulus to decrease the frequency of that behavior

continuous reinforcement

The desired behavior is reinforced every single time it occurs —> leads to the fastest learning of a new behavior; easiest to extinguish once the reinforcement stops

fixed ratio schedule 

reinforcement occurs after a set number of responses —> produces a high, steady rate of responding with a brief pause right after reinforcement 

variable ratio schedule

reinforcement occurs after an unpredictable number of responses —> produces the highest, most consistent rate of responding, with virtually no pause but is the MOST RESISTANT to extinction

fixed interval schedule

reinforcement is available after a set amount of time has passed —> produces a characteristic “scalloping” - a slow rate of responding immediately after reinforcement but it speeds up dramatically as the end of the interval approaches

variable interval schedule 

Reinforcement is available after an unpredictable amount of time has passed —> which produces a moderate, steady rate of responding because the subject never knows when the reward is coming 

observational learning

the form of learning in which individuals acquire new information, behaviors, or attitudes by observing others and then imitating what they saw

vicarious reinforcement 

the principle associated with observational learning in which if we see someone else being rewarded for a particular behavior, we are more likely to imitate that behavior 

vicarious punishment

the principle associated with observational learning in that if we see someone else being punished for a particular behavior, we are less likely to imitate that behavior 

instinct theory

The theory of motivation that proposes that behavior is motivated by unlearned, fixed patterns of behavior that are common to all members of a species

drive-reduction theory

This theory of motivation proposes that our primary motivation is to maintain homeostasis. When the balance is disrupted, a drive is created, which motivates us to take action to reduce the tension and restore balance 

arousal theory

This theory of motivation suggests that people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of physiological arousal or stimulation

maslow’s hierarchy of needs

the theory of motivation suggesting that motivation stems from a desire to fulfill a progression of needs from basic physiological requirements to complex psychological fulfillment

cognitive, physiological, and behavioral

What are the three components of emotion?

James-Lange theory 

The theory of emotion suggests that the conscious experience of emotion results from the perception of our own bodily reactions  

cannon-bard theory

The theory of emotion proposes that the physiological response and the conscious emotional experience occur simultaneously and independently

schachter-singer theory

This theory of emotion, also known as the Two Factor Theory, suggests that both physiological arousal and cognitive level are necessary to experience emotion

In other words, emotion requires both physical arousal and its interpretation

appraisal

The process of evaluating or interpreting an event or situation and its significance for one’s well-being. According to this concept, it is not the event itself that causes an emotional response, but the personal interpretation of it

General Adaptation Syndrome

a three-stage model describing the body’s physiological response to stress over timeL 

1. alarm reaction - the body’s immediate, short-term response to the initial recognition of a stressor 

2. stage of resistance - if the stressor continues, the body enters this stage where it tries to counteract the alarm reaction and maintain a stable internal state 

3. stage of exhaustion - if the stressor is severe or prolonged and the body’s resources are completely depleted, it enters this stage in which the body is very vulnerable to illness, fatigue, burnout, depression, or death 

self-concept

the overall answer to “who am I"?” that includes your set of beliefs, thoughts, and feelings we have about ourselves

self-efficacy

the belief in your own competence and ability to successfully execute a specific behavior or task. It is a highly specific, situational belief.

locus of control 

This refers to the degree to which people believe they have control over the outcome of events in their life

internal locus of control

the belief that we control our fate and the outcomes are primarily the result of our own efforts, decisions and abilities

external locus of control

the belief that outcomes are due to chance or outside forces rather than our own actions

Freud’s psychosexual stages 

1. oral (0-1 years) - gratification through the mouth. Fixation leads to excessive eating, smoking, or verbal aggression 

2. anal (1-3 years) - gratification through control of elimination. Fixation leads to anal-retentive (compulsively neat) or anal-expulsive (disorganized) personalities 

3. Phallic (3-6 years) - gratification through genitals 

4. Latency (6-puberty) - libido is sublimated; focus on skill development and social interaction 

5. Genital (puberty+) - mature sexual interests and healthy, heterosexual relationships 

Erikson’s psychosocial stages

1. trust vs mistrust

2. autonomy vs shame and doubt

3. initiative vs guilt

4. industry vs inferiority

5. identity vs role confusion

6. intimacy vs isolation

7. generativity vs stagnation

8. ego integrity vs despair

Kohlberg’s theory of Moral Reasoning

1. pre-conventional morality - based on consequences of actions

2. conventional morality - based on social rules and expectations

3. postconventional morality - morality based on abstract, universal principles

social identity 

a part of our self-concept that is derived from our knowledge of our membership in various social groups

attribution theory

explains the ways people explain or attribute the causes of their own and other people’s behavior. There are two main categories: dispositional attribution vs situational attribution

dispositional attribution

explaining a person’s behavior as being due to their internal characteristics, such as their personality, traits, intelligence, or mood

situational attribution

explaining a person’s behavior as being due to external factors outside of their control such as the environment, social pressure, luck, or difficulty of the task 

fundamental attribution error

the tendency to over-attribute the behavior of others to dispositional factors, and to underestimate the role of situational factors

self-serving bias

the tendency to protect one’s self-esteem by attributing successes to dispositional factors and failures to situational factors

stereotype

a generalized belief or mental schema about a particular group of people. It is a cognitive shortcut that can be positive, negative, or neutral

Prejudice

an unjustified or incorrect attitude or feeling toward an individual based solely on their membership in a particular group

discrimination

The action or unequal treatment taken against an individual or group based on prejudice.