Intro to Psych Chapters 7 & 8

cognition

The way in which information is processed and manipulated in remembering, thinking, and knowing.

artificial intelligence (AI)

A scientific field that focuses on creating machines capable of performing activities that require intelligence when they are done by people.

thinking

The process of manipulating information mentally by forming concepts, solving problems, making decisions, and reflecting critically or creatively.

concept

A mental category that is used to group objects, events, and characteristics.

prototype model

A model emphasizing that when people evaluate whether a given item reflects a certain concept, they compare the item to something similar and categorize them

problem solving

The mental process of finding an appropriate way to attain a goal when the goal is not readily available.

subgoals

Intermediate goals or problems to solve that put one in a better position for reaching a final goal or solution.

algorithms

Strategies—including formulas, instructions, and the testing of all possible solutions—that guarantee a solution to a problem.

heuristics

Shortcut strategies or guidelines that suggest a solution to a problem but do not guarantee an answer.

fixation

Using a prior strategy and failing to look at a problem from a fresh new perspective.

functional fixedness

Failing to solve a problem as a result of fixation on a thing’s usual functions.

reasoning

The mental activity of transforming information to reach conclusions.

inductive reasoning

Reasoning from specific observations to make generalizations.

deductive reasoning

Reasoning from a general case that is known to be true to a specific instance

decision making

the mental activity of evaluating alternatives and choosing among them

loss aversion

the tendency to strongly prefer to avoid losses compared to attempting to acquire gains

endowment effect

people ascribe greater value to things they already own, compared to objects own by someone else

sunk cost fallacy

refers to the fact that people are reluctant to give up on a venture because of past investment

confirmation bias

The tendency to search for and use information that supports one’s ideas rather than refutes them.

hindsight bias

our tendency to report falsely, after the fact, that we accurately predicted an outcome

availability heuristic

refers to a prediction about the probability of an event based on the ease of recalling or imagining similar events

base rate neglect

The tendency to ignore information about general principles in favor of very specific but vivid information.

representativeness heuristic

tendency to make judgements based on physical appearances or the match between a person and one’s stereotype of a group rather than on available base rate information

mindfulness

The state of being alert and mentally present for one’s everyday activities.

open-mindedness

The state of being receptive to other ways of looking at things.

intelligence

All-purpose ability to do well on cognitive tasks, to solve problems, and to learn from experience.

intelligence quotient (IQ)

psychologists’s score of measuring intelligence using tests, An individual’s mental age divided by chronological age multiplied by 100, coined by William stern,

validity

refers to the extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure

reliability

The extent to which a test yields a consistent, reproducible measure of performance.

standardization

The development of uniform procedures for administering and scoring a test, and the creation of norms (performance standards) for the test.

mental age (MA)

An individual’s level of mental development relative to that of others.

normal distribution

bell-shaped curve, with a majority of the scores falling in the middle of the possible range, with few scores on both extremes

culture-fair tests

Intelligence tests that are inteded to be culturally unbiased

heritability

The proportion of observable differences in a group that can be explained by differences in the genes of the group’s members.

gifted

Possessing high intelligence (an IQ of 130 or higher) and/or superior talent in a particular area.

intellectual disability

A condition of limited mental ability in which an individual has a low IQ, usually below 70 on a traditional intelligence test, and has difficulty adapting to everyday life.

triarchic theory of intelligence

Sternberg’s theory that intelligence comes in three forms: analytical, creative, and practical.

analytical intelligence

the ability to analyze, judge, evaluate, compare, and contrast

creative intelligence

the ability to create design, invent, originate, and imagine

practical intelligence

the ability to use, apply, implement, and put ideas into practice

language

a form of communication—whether spoken, written, or signed—that is based on a system of symbols

infinite generativity

The ability of language to produce an endless number of meaningful sentences.

phonology

a language’s sound system

morphology

a language’s rules for word formation

semantics

the meaning of words and sentences in a particular language, every word has a unique set of semantic features

pragmatics

the useful character of language and the ability of language to communicate more meaning than is said

syntax

a language’s rules for combining words to form acceptable phrases and sentences

dyslexia

A learning disability characterized by difficulty with learning to read fluently and with accurate comprehension, despite normal intelligence.

development

The pattern of continuity and change in human capabilities that occurs throughout life, involving both growth and decline.

cross-sectional design

A research design in which a group of people is assessed on a psychological variable at one point in time.

longitudinal design

A special kind of systematic observation, used by correlational researchers, that involves obtaining measures of the variables of interest in multiple waves over time.

nurture

An individual’s environmental and social experiences.

nature

An individual’s biological inheritance, especially genes.

resilience

A person’s ability to recover from or adapt to difficult times.

physical processes

involves changes in an individual’s biological nature

cognitive processes

involves changes in a person’s thought, intelligence, and language

prenatal development

physical development before birth, has 3 stages

germinal period

weeks 1 and 2, begins with conception, includes the zygote

embryonic period

weeks 3 through 8, zygote has become an embryo

fetal period

months 2 through 9, fetus becomes the size of kidney bean and begins to move around

teratogens

any agent that causes a problem in prenatal development, can be chemicals ingested by a pregnant person like heroin

limbic system

A set of subcortical brain structures central to emotion, memory, and reward processing.

cognitive development

refers to how thought, intelligence, and language processes change as people mature

assimilation

An individual’s incorporation of new information into existing knowledge.

accommodation

An individual’s adjustment of their schemas to new information.

schema

a mental concept or framework that organizes information and provides a structure for interpreting it

sensorimotor stage

Piaget’s first stage of cognitive development, lasts from birth to about 2 years old, infants build an understand of the world

object permanence

Piaget’s term for the accomplishment of understanding that objects exist even if they aren’t directly seen, heard, or touched

preoperational stage

Piaget’s second stage of cognitive development, lasting from about two to seven years of age, during which thought is more symbolic than sensorimotor thought.

concrete operational stage

Piaget’s third stage of cognitive development, lasting from about 7 to 11 years of age, during which the individual uses operations and replaces intuitive reasoning with logical reasoning in concrete situations.

formal operational stage

Piaget’s fourth stage of cognitive development, 11 to 15 years of age and continues through the adult years, thinking about things that aren’t concrete, uses logic

core knowledge approach

A perspective on infant cognitive development that holds that babies are born with domain-specific knowledge systems.

conservation

a belief in the permanence of certain attributes of objects despite superficial changes

egocentric

thoughts during the preoperational stage are considered to be this, meaning a preoperational child cannot take others perspectives

executive function

Higher-order, complex cognitive processes, including thinking, planning, and problem solving.

wisdom

Expert knowledge about the practical aspects of life.

socioemotional processes

involves changes in person’s social relationships, emotional life, and personality

temperament

An individual’s behavioral style and characteristic way of responding.

infant attachment

The close emotional bond between an infant and its caregiver.

secure attachment

The ways that infants use their caregiver, usually their mother, as a secure base from which to explore the environment.

Trust versus Mistrust

Erikson’s 1st stage of socioemotional development, birth to 1.5 years, a sense of trust requires a feeling of physical comfort

Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt

Erikson’s 2nd stage of socioemotional development, 1.5 to 3 years, infants start to discover they have a will of their own, assert a sense of independence

Initiative versus Guilt

Erikson’s 3rd stage of socioemotional development, 3 to 5 years, children are asked to more responsibility, guilt may arise if the children are irresponsible

Industry versus Inferiority

Erikson’s 4th stage of socioemotional development, 6 to puberty, energy going to wards intellectual skills, danger at this stage includes incompetency and unproductiveness

Identity versus Identity Confusion

Erikson’s 5th stage of socioemotional development, 10 to 20 years, individuals are faced with finding out who they are, career exploration

Intimacy versus Isolation

Erikson’s 6th stage of socioemotional development, 20s and 30s, individuals face the developmental task of forming intimate relationships, described as losing oneself in another person

Generativity versus Stagnation

Erikson’s 7th stage of socioemotional development, 40s and 50s, a concern to assist the younger develops

Integrity versus Despair

Erikson’s 8th and final stage of socioemotional development, individuals looks back and evaluate what they have done with their lives, can be either positive or negative

authoritarian parenting

a strict punitive parenting style, limits and controls the child with little verbal exchange

autoritative parenting

encourages the child to be independent but still places limits and control on behavior, more collaborative

neglectful parenting

distinguished by a lack of parental involvement in the child’s life, children may be less competent socially

permissive parenting

places few limits on the child’s behavior, parents let the children do what they want, children receiving this parenting style may fail to learn respect for others, and expect to get their own way

emerging adulthood

The transitional period from adolescence to adulthood, spanning approximately 18 to 25 years of age.

gender

The social and psychological aspects of being male, female, both, or neither.

gender identity

A person’s inner concept of themselves in relation to the ideas of being male, female, both, or neither.

sexual orientation

The direction of an individual’s erotic interests, today viewed as a continuum from exclusive male–female relations to exclusive same-gender relations.

gender roles

Roles that reflect the society’s expectations for how people of different genders should think, act, and feel.

gender similarities hypothesis

Hyde’s proposition that people of different genders are much more similar than they are different.

moral development

involves changes that occur with age in people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors regarding the principles and values that guide them as they interact with others

preconventional

Kohlberg’s 1st stage of moral development, reasoning is based on primarily the consequences of a behavior and on pnishments and rewards from the external world