#4.) 3.7 Classical Conditioning; 3.8 Operant Conditioning

classical conditioning

a part of the behavioral perspective or a type of passive learning in which we link two or more stimuli and naturally produce a behavior.

• Example: a bell is rung before food (unconditioned) is given. The dog learns to salivate as a conditioned response to the bell, the conditioned stimulus, alone, and links the bell sound and food together.

unconditioned stimulus

a stimulus that unconditionally, or naturally and automatically, triggers an unconditioned response. 

unconditioned response

an unlearned, naturally occurring response, such as salivation, to an unconditioned stimulus, such as food in the mouth. 

• ucr = automatic, unlearned reaction or response to a stimulus

conditioned stimulus

a learned response to a previously neutral, or meaningless, (but now conditioned) stimulus. 

conditioned response

 an originally neutral (meaningless) stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response. 

• cr = learned response to a previously meaningless stimulus

Acquisition conditioning

• the initial learning phase when a response is first learned

• when someone links a neutral stimulus and a unconditioned stimulus so that a neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response

• a dog starts learning that a bell means food and begins to salivate when a bell rings

extinction

• in classical conditioning, the gradual weakening of a conditioned response when the reinforcement stops

• example: if the bell rings without food over and over, the dog eventually stops salivating

spontaneous recovery

• in classical conditioning, the reappearance of a weakened conditioned response after some time has passed without exposure to the conditioned stimulus

• example: days after extinction, the bell rings again and the dog salivates a little, even though the behavior has stopped.

(stimulus) generalization

• in classical conditioning, it is to have the same conditioned response to similar stimuli to the conditioned stimulus.

• example: a dog salivates to not only to the bell, but also to other similar sounds, like a chime

(stimulus) discrimination

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been associated with a conditioned stimulus

• example: the dog only has the conditioned response to high-pitched sounding bells and not low-pitched sounding bells.

higher-order conditioning

• when a neutral stimulus becomes conditioned by being paired with another neutral stimulus

•  occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a previously conditioned stimulus to trigger the same conditioned response

• example: cat learns to get excited by the sound of a can opening, and then later learns to get excited to the sound of the cabinet opening, which is the sound made before a can opening.

• in the dog experiment: a light is paired with the bell. Eventually, the light alone makes the dog salivate

counterconditioning

• replacing an unwanted response with a new, more desirable one

• a behavioral therapy technique that replaces an unwanted conditioned response (like fear) with a new, desirable response (like relaxation) by associating the trigger with a new opposite stimulus.

• example: a kid afraid of dogs is given candy only when a calm dog is nearby, creating a new, positive association.

habituation

• decreased responding with repeated stimulation

• As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a stimulus, their interest decreases and they look away sooner

taste aversion

• when exposed to the sight or smell of something that is associated with nausea or vomiting or sickness, one feels ill and is unlikely to expose themselves to it again

• happens through one-trial conditioning (the single pairing of stimulus (like food) and response (like illness) will be enough to create a strong and long-lasting association after a single pairing time.

• happens through biological preparedness (the assumption that organisms are evolutionary predisposed to developing associations between certain stimuli and responses because they have been particularly adaptive for survival (ex: fearing snakes to avoid getting poisoned)

operant conditioning

when organisms associate their own actions or BEHAVIOR with consequences.

Law of Effect

Thorndlike’s principle states that rewarded behavior tends to recur; behaviors followed by favorable (reinforcing) consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable (or punishing) consequences become less likely. 

Classical conditioning vs. Biological conditioning

• Classical Conditioning: learned by association

• Biological Conditioning: learned by consequences

Positive reinforcement

giving something good after good/certain behavior

Negative reinforcement

Taking away something bad after good/certain behavior

Primary vs. Secondary (conditioned) reinforcers

• Primary Reinforcers: satisfying stimulus that we already have that fulfills basic (biological) needs such as food, water, sleep, and even a headache going away

• Secondary (conditioned) Reinforcers: refers to a stimulus that becomes reinforcing or rewarding after being paired with a primary reinforcer

partial reinforcement vs continuous reinforcement

• Partial reinforcement: a schedule of reinforcement in which every instance of a desired behavior is reinforced

• Continuous reinforcement: a schedule of reinforcement in which only some instances of a desired behavior is reinforced, but not all.

What is Shaping? What are Successive Approximations and Instinctive Drifts in shaping?

Shaping: an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of a desired behavior.

• Successive Approximations: the gradual steps taken towards achieving a desired behavior, where each step is rewarded until the final behavior is reached.

• Instinctive Drift: the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns

How do superstitions apply to conditioning?

Superstitions in operant conditioning is when someone repeats a behavior because it was accidentally rewarded, even though the reward doesn’t actually cause the reward.

• example: a pigeon spins a circle because it got food by chance while it was spinning, it thinks spinning caused the food to be rewarded.

learned helplessness

the feeling of hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or person learns or believes when they are unable to avoid repeated aversive/bad events. 

fixed-ratios (schedule of reinforcement)

• “fixed” = set number

• “ratio” = response

• reinforcement after a certain amount of times of behavior

  • example: “10 coffees, get 1 for free”

fixed-intervals (schedule of reinforcement)

• fixed = set number

• interval = time

• reinforcement for behavior after a fixed time

  • example: Every Tuesdays have sales

variable-ratio (schedule of reinforcement)

• "variable” = changing or unknown number

• “ratio” = response

• reinforcement after a random, unpredictable number of behaviors

  • example: playing a slot machine; gambling; fishing

variable-interval (schedule of reinforcement)

• “variable” = changing or unknown number

• interval = time

• reinforcement for behavior after a random amount of time

  • example: checking our phones for a message

positive punishment

taking something good away after a bad/certain behavior

negative punishment

adding or giving something bad after a bad/certain behavior

• example: hitting someone after they steal something from you