AP Psych Unit 8

Primary Drive

Primary Drive

Unlearned drive based on a physiological state found in all animals; they motivate behavior for survival EX: Hunger, thirst, and sex

Secondary Drive

A learned drive, developed through the association with or generalization from a primary drive. EX: Wealth, pride, fame

Drive-Reduction

The idea that a physiological need (such as food, water) creates an aroused tension state (drive) in the body that motivates an organism to satisfy the need (reduction).

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

At the base of the hierarchy are the physiological needs and safety needs (basic needs) that must be satisfied before higher level needs - such as love, belonging, esteem, and self-actualization - can be met.

Optimum Arousal

Some motivated behaviors seem to be driven by a need to increase or decrease our physiological arousal level.

Yerkes-Dodson Law

The principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a certain point. Beyond that point, performance decreases. EX: when taking a test, it's good to be moderately aroused (alert, but not trembling with anxiety), as you tend to perform better.

Instinct

A complex, unlearned behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species. EX: salmon migrate back to the waters where they were born, geese migrate south for the winter, etc.

Benefits of Belonging

• Mutual protection in a large group

• Cooperation in hunting and sharing food; division of labor to allow for agriculture

Ostracism

To cut off from social contact or be excluded on purpose. This can take the form of exile, imprisonment, or solitary confinement.

Behavior Effects of being excluded

• Depression

• Withdrawal

• Weight loss

• Lack of self-esteem

Set Point

The point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is set.

Lateral Hypothalamus (LH)

The lateral hypothalamus is the part of the brain that controls the desire to eat.

Ventromedial Hypothalamus (VMH)

This is the part of the brain that controls satiety. When this is stimulated, a rat will starve to death, acting as though it has eaten and does not need food.

Insulin

Location of Secretion: Pancreas Effect on Hunger: Controls blood glucose levels by metabolizing carbohydrates

Ghrelin

Location of Secretion: Stomach Effect on Hunger: In an empty stomach, this sends the " I'm hungry" message to the brain.

Orexin

Location of Secretion: Hypothalamus Effect on Hunger: Causes the individual to eat or satisfy this hunger-triggering hormone

Leptin

Location of Secretion: Fat Cells Effect on Hunger: When it is abundant, this causes the brain to increase metabolism and decrease hunger

PYY

Location of Secretion: Intestines Effect on Hunger: Send the " I'm not hungry message to the brain

Group Size

When we are in the presence of others, we tend to eat more than we normally would

Portion Size

We may only eat one serving of food if that is all that's available. But, if we're given the option to upsize our portion size, we will choose to eat more.

Food Variety

We eat more food if there are more food options available to us.

How do Set Point and Metabolism play a role in obesity?

Those who become overweight develop a new set point as a result of shifting metabolism levels to maintain the new weight. Starving to lose weight slows metabolism further, and as weight drops below the new set point, hunger kicks in, causing us to eat more to maintain that level despite slower metabolic rates.

How do Genetics play a role in obesity?

Despite shared family meals, adoptive siblings' body weights are uncorrelated with one another or with those of their adoptive parents. Rather, people's weights resemble those of our biological parents.

How do Environmental Factors play a role in obesity?

People who are restless and fidget more burn more calories than those who lead a more sedentary lifestyle. Changing food consumption and activity levels are at play. We are eating more and moving less. In the US, jobs requiring moderate physical activity have declined from 50% in 1960 to 20% in 2011.

Excitement stage

Genitals fill with blood and lubricate; breathing and pulse become rapid

Plateau Stage

The changes related to excitement reach a peak, just before orgasm

Orgasm

Contractions occur all over the body; in males this is present through ejaculation, and for females it's present through contractions in the cervix that draw sperm towards the uterus

Resolution Stage

Enlarged genitals release blood; males go through a refractory period in which they cannot achieve another orgasm for a certain amount of time.

Sexual Dysfunction

A problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning.

Erectile Dysfunction

A male has difficulty in having or maintaining an erection.

Female Orgasmic Disorder

Distress over infrequently or never experiencing orgasm.

Paraphilia

Abnormal sexual desires such as exhibitionism, fetishism, and pedophilia.

APA Requirements for someone w/ Paraphilia

• The person expresses distress from their unusual sexual interest

• The sexual desire or behavior entails harm or risk of others

Estrogen

Female levels of estrogen change as they ovulate.

• As the levels increase, women express increased preference for masculine faces and have a slight ability to detect sexual orientation, but also increased apprehensiveness of men perceived as sexually coercive.

Testosterone

Male hormone levels remain more constant.

• Hormone injection into male animals does not easily manipulate their sexual behavior.

• In the presence of an attractive female, testosterone levels surge in males, which contribute to them being more risky in their behavior as they try to impress them.

External Stimuli

Factors outside the body that are taken in by receptors and lead to a response.

Sexual Motivation

• When both males and females see, hear, or read erotic material, they exhibit nearly as much arousal to the same stimuli.

• The brains of males and females respond differently- fMRI scans reveal a more active amygdala in men viewing erotica

• In 132 different studies, men's feelings of sexual arousal have much more closely mirrored their genital response then women

Imagined Stimuli

Our imagination in our brain can influence sexual arousal and desire.

Emotion

A full body, mind, and behavioral response to a stimulus/situation.

Expressive Behavior

Yelling, increasing walk of pace, hand gestures, etc.

Bodily Arousal

Sweating, pounding of heart, quickened breath, etc.

Conscious Experience

The thoughts we have at the moment that allow us to label the emotion.

James-Lange Theory

States our emotion is our conscious awareness of our physiological response to different stimuli.

• Our body arousal happens first, and the cognitive awareness of the change occurs for us to label the emotion.

EX: "We're afraid because we tremble"

"Two-factor" Theory

suggests that emotions do not exist until we add a label to whatever body sensations we are feeling in response to stimulus.

Spill-Over Effect

The tendency of one person's emotion to affect how other people around them feel.

EX: Mr.Shue receives a phone call that his wife is pregnant with a much-awaited baby. He goes into class happy and excited, and although he doesn't share the news, the good mood rubs off on the students.

Lazarus Theory

Richard Lazarus agreed with Schachter and Singer that our appraisal and labeling of an event determine our emotional response. Where he differed though is that he suggested that sometimes, due to the vast amount of information that our brain processes, we do not require conscious thinking.

Cannon-Bard Theory

Asserts that we have a conscious experience of an emotion at the same time as our body is responding to it, not afterward (as James-Lange suggested).

EX: An individual sees a spider (stimulus), the individual begins to shake (physiological response) and immediately interprets the shaking as fear, which causes the person to express fear (emotion).

Zajonc-LeDoux Theory

• Zajonc suggested that we have many emotional reactions apart from our conscious interpretation of a situation.

• LeDoux suggested that sometimes our emotions - especially likes, dislikes, and fears - travel the unconscious low road.

Sympathetic Nervous System

In a crisis, the sympathetic nervous system of your autonomic nervous system mobilizes your body for action.

EX: The pupils dilate, salvation decreases, perspiration increases, respiration increases, heartbeat accelerates, and adrenaline is pumped into the bloodstream.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

When the crisis passes, the parasympathetic division of your ANS gradually calms your body, as stress hormones slowly leave your bloodstream, without any conscious effort.

EX: The pupils contract, perspiration decreases, salivation increases, heart beat decreases, and adrenaline is no longer pumped into blood stream

How is insula related to different emotions?

The insula, a neural center deep inside the brain, is activated by various social emotions, such as lust, pride, and disgust.

• In brain scans, it becomes active when people bite into disgusting food, smell the same disgusting food, think about biting into that food, or feel moral disgust over a sleazy business exploiting a saintly window.

How is amygdala related to different emotions?

When individuals are shown angry faces, these watching and subtly mimicking fearful faces show more activity in their amygdala that those not viewing these areas.

How is prefrontal cortex related to different emotions?

When you experience negative emotions, such as disgust, your right prefrontal cortex tends to be more active than the left. Depression prone people show more right frontal lobe activity.

How is frontal lobe related to different emotions?

People who experience positive moods and have positive personalities show more activity in their left frontal lobe than in the right.

Gestures

The meaning of gestures varies from culture to culture.

EX: Present Nixon gave the "OK" sign while in Brazil. In Brazil, this was a crude insult

Display Rules

Norms that exist within a culture that regulate the appropriate expression of emotions.

EX: Japanese culture emphasizes the suppression of negative emotions (sadness, anger, and disgust) in public and show polite facial expression, such as smiling, even though they are internally experiencing the negative emotion.

Facial Feedback

• Facial position and muscle changes can alter which emotion we feel.

• In one study, people whose faces were moved into smiling or frowning positions experienced a change in mood.

Feedback Phenomenon

• Moving your body as you would when expecting a particular emotion causes you to feel that emotion.

• If you walk for a few minutes with short, shuffling steps, keeping your eyes down, you will feel less confident than if you were to walk with long strides, arms swinging, and eyes straight ahead.

Stress

the process of appraising (whether to view something as a stressor) and responding to the events which we consider challenging or threatening.

Positive Effects of Stress

• Improve your immune system response

• Motivate you to act upon a certain stimulus/situation,

• Cause you to refocus your priorities,

• Encourage growth of knowledge and self-esteem

Negative Effects of Stress

• Develop learned helplessness

• Become easily defeated

• Weakens immune system response to disease

• Affect our body's ability to fight cancer and may lead to heart disease

Eustress

The stress we perceive as positive, but still cause heightened arousal

EX: Riding a roller coaster, getting married, etc

Distress

The stress we perceive as negative - the events we typically think of when we hear "stress"

EX: Lose of a job, going through divorce, etc.

Catastrophes

• Unpredictable, large scale events, such as wars, earthquakes, flood and wildfires. Everyone appraises a catastrophe as threatening and as harmful/overwhelming.

• Long term effects of catastrophic events include depression, nightmares, anxiety, and flashbacks - all of which make coping more difficult

Significant Life Changes

• Changes such as graduation, starting college, marriage, starting a new job, birth of a child, loss of a loved one.

• The challenge and stress exists because we are forced to cope with a new role, new priorities, and new tasks that we must accept

Daily Hassles

• Daily hassles can include things such as traffic, aggravating siblings or friends, long lunch lines, too many things to do, etc.

• They become stressful because we believe that they're caused by an external locus of control

• Despite what we can do, there isn't much we can do to control them and the occurrence of the events.

Alarm Reaction

During the first stage of the GAS, the fight or flight response is initiated. Heart rate increases, breathing increases, perspiration, and the adrenal glands begin producing and pumping epinephrine and norepinephrine into the blood

Resistance

During this stage of the GAS, the brain signals to the adrenal glands to begin production of cortisol and other stress hormones. These hormones help the individual to access all available energy resources to meet the challenge.

Exhaustion

With no more energy reserves to use, the body becomes exhausted, in which you can become more susceptible to illness, or in extreme cases, collapse and die.

B Lymphocytes

Fight bacterial infections; released from the bone marrow

T Lymphocytes

Fight viruses, cancer cells, and foreign substances; released from the lymphatic systems

Macrophages

Helps break down worn out cells and harmful invaders

Natural Killers (NK Cells)

Pursue diseased cells, such as those infected by viruses or cancer, that need to be destroyed.

Relationship between stress and cancer

Stress may weaken the body's defense against the replication and spread of malignant cells

Relationship between stress and heart disease

• Stressed individuals are likely to suffer from heart disease that causes blood vessels to become clogged, narrowed, or closed.

• In addition, individuals who have a pessimistic mentality are more likely to develop heart disease due to exposure to stress. - Chronic exposure to stress and high levels of cortisol can lead to increased chance for heart disease.

Type A Personality

• These individuals tend to be competitive, pushing themselves and others to achieve, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger prone people.

• In one study, heart attacks only struck people with Type A personality traits.

Type B Personality

• These individuals are more relaxed and more "go with the flow"

• These individuals are more likely to not suffer from stress related illnesses.

Personality

An individual's characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that persist over time and across situations

Psychoanalysis Core Ideas

Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts

Free Associations

In psychoanalysis, this is a method in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing

Humanistic Perspective

How we meet our needs for love and acceptance in order to achieve self-fulfillment (full potential)

Self Actualization

A person has reached their full, developmental potential.

• In this state, a person's personality includes being self-aware, self-accepting, open, ethical, spontaneous, loving, caring, and focusing on a greater mission in life than social acceptance.

Limitations of Maslow's Self-Actualizing Person Theory

By only studying a few atypical people, one cannot generalize the findings to the whole population.

Id

Function: Located in the unconscious mind with the function of satisfying basic biological needs

Operates on the pleasure principle, as it demands immediate gratification

Ego

Function: The largely conscious part of our personality that helps maintain balance between id and superego.

Operates on the reality principle as it tries to satisfy the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure

Superego

Function: The part of our personality that represents internalized ideals and morals

Operates on the morality principle as it provides standards for judgment and future aspiration.

Oral (0 - 18 months)

The id's pleasure focuses on the mouth, as one receives appropriate pleasure from biting, chewing, and sucking.

Anal (18 - 36 months)

The id's pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder elimination, as an individual must cope with demands for control of these excretory processes.

Phallic (3 - 6 years)

The id's pleasure focuses on the individuals genitals, as an individual must learn to cope with incestuous sexual feelings toward the opposite gendered parent

Oedipus Complex

A boys sexual desires towards his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred towards his rival father

Electra Complex

A girl's sexual desires towards her father and feelings of jealousy and hatred towards her rival mother.

Latency (6 - puberty)

The id's pleasure for sexual feelings is diminished until puberty.

Genital (Puberty - Adulthood)

The id's pleasure focuses back on genitals, as an individual must learn how to appropriately cope with satisfying sexual interests in a socially acceptable manner.

Repression

Definition: An individual banishes anxiety arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from conscious awareness.

Example: Not remembering a traumatic event, such as being a prisoner in the Holocaust

Regression

Definition: Retreating to a more infantile stage of their life

Example: An adult reverts to the oral comfort of sucking on his thumb on the way to a new job

Reaction Formation

Definition: Switching unacceptable impulses to their opposite - similar to being passive aggressive

Example: Instead of wanting to punch someone in the face, you offer them cookies and are overly nice

Projection

Definition: Disguising one's own threatening impulses by attributing them to others

Example: A person who works at Target may want to steal a TV, so they tell their boss they believe others are going to steal

Rationalization

Definition: Offering self-justifying explanations in the place of real, more threatening reasons for one's actions

Example: Stating you were fired because your boss hates you, when it was really due to your poor performance

Displacement

Definition: Shifting one's impulses towards a more acceptable or less threatening object/person

Example: A little girl kicks the family dog after her mother sends her to her room.

Sublimation

Definition: Finding socially acceptable ways to release your unacceptable impulses

Example: An individual who is aggressive and angry becomes a boxer