Building Materials

Concrete

Concrete

An artificial, stonelike building material made by mixing cement and various mineral aggregates with sufficient water to cause cement to set and blind the entire mass.

Cement

A calcined mixture of clay and limestone, finely pulverized and used as an ingredient in concrete and mortar. The term is frequently used incorrectly for concrete.

Pozzolan Cement

A siliceous material, as fly ash, that reacts chemically with slaked lime in the presence of moisture to form a slow hardening cement, named after a natural cement from Pozzuolli, an ancient Roman town near Vesuvius.

Portland Cement

A hydraulic cement made by burning a mixture of clay and limestone in a rotary kiln and pulverizing the resulting clinker into a very fine powder, named for its resemblance to a limestone quarried on the Isle of Portland, England.

Type I (Normal)

This is a general-purpose Portland cement suitable for most construction projects. It's commonly used in concrete for foundations, pavements, buildings, and other structures where no special requirements are needed.

Type II (Moderate)

contains a moderate amount of tricalcium aluminate (C3A), which makes it more resistant to sulfate attack compared to Type I cement. It is suitable for projects where the concrete will be exposed to moderate sulfate concentrations in soil or groundwater.

Type III (High-Early Strength)

has a higher early strength gain compared to Type I and Type II cements. It is often used in situations where quick formwork removal or early load-bearing capacity is required, such as precast concrete elements, cold weather concreting, and fast-track construction projects.

Type IV (Low Heat)

is a low heat of hydration cement, meaning it generates less heat during the hydration process compared to other types. This makes it suitable for massive concrete structures like dams and large foundation elements, where minimizing the risk of thermal cracking is important.

Type V (Sulfate-Resisting)

has the highest sulfate resistance among all Portland cement types. It contains the lowest percentage of C3A, making it highly resistant to sulfate attack from sources such as seawater or soils with high sulfate content.____________ is commonly used in marine structures, wastewater treatment plants, and other

Water

The _____ used in a concrete or mortar mix exclusive of any absorbed by the aggregate and free of such harmful substances as organic material, clay, and salts. _______ fit for drinking is generally acceptable.

Aggregate

Any of various hard, inert, mineral materials, as sand and gravel, added to a cement paste to make concrete or mortar. Since it represents from 60% to 80% of the concrete volume, its properties are important to the strength, weight, and fire-resistance of the hardened concrete. These should be hard, dimensionally stable, and free of clay, silt, and organic matter which can prevent the cementing matrix from binding the particles together.

Fine Aggregates

Also known as sand, _____ consists of particles smaller than 4.75 mm (0.187 inches) in diameter. It is commonly used in concrete and mortar mixes to fill the voids between larger particles.

Coarse Aggregate

___________ includes particles larger than 4.75 mm in diameter. Common types of ____________ include gravel, crushed stone, and recycled concrete aggregate. ______ provides strength and bulk to concrete mixes.

Admixture

Any substance other than cement, water, or aggregate, added to a concrete or mortar mix to alter its properties or those of the hardened product. Also called additive.

Water-Reducing Admixtures

Also known as plasticizers or superplasticizers, these admixtures reduce the amount of water needed in a concrete mix while maintaining the desired workability. They improve the flow of concrete, enhance pumpability, and reduce the water-cement ratio, resulting in higher strength and durability. _______ are commonly used in high-performance concrete and self-consolidating concrete mixes.

Set Retarding Admixtures

______ slow down the setting time of concrete, extending the time available for placement, finishing, and transportation. They are particularly useful in hot weather concreting, large pours, or when a delayed setting time is desired to accommodate special construction techniques.

Set Accelerating Admixtures

Conversely, ______ speed up the setting time of concrete, allowing for faster strength development and early formwork removal. They are used in cold weather concreting, emergency repairs, or when rapid construction schedules need to be met.

Air-Entraining Admixtures

__________ agents are added to concrete to create microscopic air bubbles throughout the mixture. These air bubbles improve the freeze-thaw resistance of concrete by providing space for water to expand when it freezes, reducing the risk of cracking and spalling in cold climates.

Corrosion-Inhibiting Admixtures

_____ are added to concrete to protect embedded steel reinforcement from corrosion caused by chloride ions, carbonation, or other aggressive agents. They form a protective layer on the surface of reinforcement, reducing the permeability of concrete and inhibiting the penetration of harmful substances.

Shrinkage-Reducing Admixtures

______ mitigate the shrinkage and cracking of concrete during curing and drying. They work by reducing the surface tension of water within the concrete mix, minimizing moisture loss and subsequent shrinkage.

Coloring Admixtures

Coloring agents are added to concrete to achieve desired aesthetic effects. They come in liquid or powder form and can be used to produce a wide range of colors and finishes in decorative concrete applications.

Specialty Admixtures

_____ include a variety of additives designed for specific purposes, such as waterproofing, sulfate resistance, alkali-silica reaction (ASR) mitigation, and self-healing concrete.

Mix Design

The most economical selection and proportioning of cement, water, and aggregate to produce concrete or mortar having the required properties of workability, strength, durability, and watertightness.

Abram’s Law

A law postulating that, with given concrete materials, curing, and testing conditions, the compressive strength of concrete is inversely proportional to the ratio of water to cement; developed by D.A. Abrams in 1919 from experiments at Lewis Institute in Chicago.

Water-Cement Ratio

The ratio of mixing water to cement in a unit volume of concrete or mortar mix, preferably expressed by weight as a decimal fraction but often stated in gallons of water per 94-lb. sack of cement. The water-cement ratio controls the strength, durability, and watertightness of hardened concrete.

Formwork

_____ is a temporary structure used in construction to support freshly poured concrete or other materials until they can support themselves. _______ serves as a mold into which concrete is poured and shaped, allowing it to set and harden into the desired shape and dimensions.

Sheets or Panels

These are the facing materials that come into direct contact with the concrete. They can be made of plywood, steel, aluminum, or plastic.

Stiffeners and Bracing

These provide support and stability to the formwork, preventing deformation or collapse during concrete placement.

Form Ties

These are used to hold the formwork panels together and resist the lateral pressure exerted by the fresh concrete.

Shores and Props

These are vertical supports placed beneath the formwork to carry the weight of the concrete and the formwork itself.

Accessories

Various ____ such as walers, wedges, clamps, and connectors are used to assemble and secure the formwork system.

Reinforced Concrete

____ is a composite material composed of concrete (a mixture of cement, water, and aggregates) reinforced with steel reinforcement bars, also known as rebars or rods. This combination of materials creates a versatile and durable construction material with enhanced strength and loadbearing capacity compared to plain concrete.

Beams

Types of reinforced concrete members that has horizontal members that carry loads primarily by bending. They are commonly used to support slabs, decks, and other structural elements.

Columns

Types of reinforced concrete members that has vertical members that support axial loads (compression) and lateral forces. They provide vertical support to the structure and transfer loads to the foundation.

Slabs

Types of reinforced concrete members that has horizontal flat plates used as floors, ceilings, or roofs in buildings. __ can be one-way or two-way, depending on the direction of bending and support conditions.

Foundations

Types of reinforced concrete members that provide support and stability to the entire structure by transferring loads to the underlying soil or rock.

Reinforcement

A system of steel bars, strands, or wires for absorbing tensile, shearing, and sometimes the compressive stresses in a concrete member or structure,

Reinforcing Bar

A steel bar for reinforcing concrete, usually specified by number equivalent to its diameter. Also called rebar.

Deformed Steel Bar

A reinforcing bar hot-rolled with surface deformations to develop a greater bond with concrete.

Fiber-Reinforced Concrete

Concrete reinforced with dispersed, randomly oriented fibers of glass or plastic.

Welded-Wire Fabric

A grid of longitudinal and transverse steel wires or bars welded together at all points of intersection, usually specified by the size of the grin in inches and the wire gauge. Also called weldedwire mesh.

Woven-Wire Fabric

A mesh of cold-drawn steel wires mechanically twisted together to form hexagonally shaped openings.

Longitudinal Reinforcement

____ refers to the reinforcement bars or rods that are placed along the length of a structural member to resist tensile forces induced by bending, shear, and axial loads.

_____ is essential for providing strength and ductility to structural members, especially under bending and flexural loading conditions.

Web Reinforcement

Reinforcement consisting of bent bars, or stirrups, placed in a concrete beam to resist diagonal tension.

Bent Bars

A longitudinal bar bent to an angle of 30 degrees or more with the axis of a concrete beam, perpendicular to and intersecting the cracking that could occur from diagonal tension.

Stirrup

Any of the U-shaped or closed-loop (hoops) bars placed perpendicularly to the longitudinal reinforcement of a concrete beam to resist vertical component of diagonal section.

Vertical Reinforcement

____ also known as vertical bars, refers to the reinforcement bars that are placed vertically within a structural element to resist tensile forces and provide lateral confinement.

In columns and walls, _______ bars are placed perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the element to enhance its axial load-carrying capacity and resistance to bending moments and shear forces.

_________ helps distribute loads evenly throughout the height of the structural element and prevents buckling or crushing under compressive loads.

Lateral Reinforcement

Spiral reinforcement or lateral ties placed in a concrete column to laterally restrain the vertical reinforcement and prevent buckling.

Masonry

Building with units of various natural or manufactured products, as stone, brick, or concrete block, usually with the use of mortar as a bonding.

Course

A continuous, usually horizontal range of bricks, tiles, or shingles, as in a wall or roof

Base Course

The ______ is the first layer of masonry units laid on top of the footing. It provides a stable base for the rest of the wall and helps to distribute the weight evenly.

Wythe

A continuous vertical section of a masonry wall one unit in thickness.

Lintels

______ are horizontal structural elements placed over openings such as doors and windows to support the weight of the masonry above.

Sills

____ are horizontal structural elements placed beneath openings to support the masonry below.

Coping

___________ is the topmost layer of the masonry wall, designed to protect the wall from moisture infiltration and to provide a finished appearance. Coping may be made of masonry units, concrete, metal, or other materials.

Brick Masonry

_______ is a construction method that utilizes bricks as the primary building material. Bricks are typically made from clay, though they can also be made from concrete, sand-lime, or other materials.

In _______, bricks are laid in courses and bonded together with mortar, a mixture of cement, sand, and water.

Load-Bearing Brick Masonry

In _____, the bricks themselves support the weight of the structure. This type of masonry is commonly used for walls in buildings where the walls also serve as the primary structural support.

Non-Load-Bearing Brick Masonry

_________ walls do not support any vertical loads other than their own weight. They are typically used as interior partitions or as cladding for structural frames made from other materials.

Stone Masonry

In this type, natural stones such as granite, limestone, or sandstone are used as building units. Stone masonry can be further categorized into rubble masonry, ashlar masonry, and dressed stone masonry, depending on the method of construction.

Hollow-Unit Masonry

_____refers to a construction method where hollow units such as concrete blocks or clay bricks with voids or cavities inside are used to build walls. These hollow units offer several advantages over solid units, including reduced weight, better insulation properties, and ease of handling and installation. ______ is commonly used in both load-bearing and non-load-bearing walls in residential, commercial, and industrial construction.

Reinforced Hollow-Unit Masonry

______ involves reinforcing the hollow units with steel reinforcement bars or mesh to enhance the strength and structural performance of the masonry wall. The reinforcement is typically placed within the voids or cavities of the hollow units and embedded in mortar during construction.

Concrete Masonry Unit

A _______also known as a concrete block or cinder block, is a rectangular building block made from a mixture of Portland cement, water, aggregates (such as sand, gravel, or crushed stone), and sometimes additives or pigments. ________ are widely used in construction for building walls, partitions, and other structural elements.

Standard Concrete Block

These are rectangular blocks with two cores or voids running vertically through the block. They come in different sizes and are used for a wide range of applications in construction.

Hollow Concrete Block

Similar to standard blocks, but with multiple cores or voids running vertically through the block. ________ are lighter in weight and offer better insulation properties than solid blocks.

Solid Concrete Block

These blocks have no voids or cores and are used in applications where additional strength and stability are required, such as in load-bearing walls or retaining walls.

Interlocking Concrete Block

These blocks have tongue-and-groove joints or other interlocking features that allow them to fit together tightly without the need for mortar. Interlocking blocks are commonly used in retaining walls, erosion control, and landscaping applications.

Mortar

A plastic mixture of lime or cement, or a combination of both, with sand and water, used as bonding agent in masonry construction.

Cement Mortar

A mortar made by mixing portland cement, sand, and water.

Type M Mortar

Type___mortar is the strongest and most durable type of mortar. It has the highest compressive strength among the mortar types. It is typically composed of one part Portland cement, three parts sand, and enough water to produce a stiff mixture.

Type __ mortar is commonly used for load-bearing masonry construction where high strength is required, such as in foundations, retaining walls, and below-grade applications.

Type S Mortar

Type__ mortar is a medium-strength mortar with good bonding properties. It is typically composed of one part Portland cement, one part lime, and six parts sand, although the exact proportions may vary.

Type ___ mortar is suitable for use in structural masonry applications above grade, such as in walls, chimneys, and exterior facades.

Type N Mortar

Type __ mortar is a general-purpose mortar with medium strength and good workability. It is typically composed of one part Portland cement, one part lime, and six parts sand.

Type __ mortar is commonly used for non-load-bearing applications above grade, such as in interior walls, partitions, and exterior veneers.

Type O Mortar

Type __mortar is a low-strength mortar with high flexibility and good workability. It is typically composed of one part Portland cement, two parts lime, and nine parts sand.

Type __ mortar is suitable for use in non-load-bearing applications above grade, such as in repointing old masonry or repairing historic structures where the mortar must match the original material.

Type K Mortar

Type __ mortar is the weakest and most flexible type of mortar. It is typically composed of one part Portland cement, three parts lime, and ten parts sand. Type __ mortar is rarely used in modern construction but may be suitable for certain historic restoration projects where flexibility and compatibility with existing materials are critical.

Metal

Any of a class of elementary substances, as gold, silver, or copper, all of which are crystalline when solid and many of which are characterized by opacity, ductility, conductivity, and a unique luster when freshly fractured.

Ferrous Metals

______ contain iron as the primary constituent. Steel and cast iron are common examples of ferrous metals, widely used in construction, manufacturing, and infrastructure.

Iron

A malleable, ductile, magnetic, silver-white metallic element from which pig iron and steel are made. Symbol: Fe

Pig Iron

Crude iron that is drawn from a blast furnace and cast into pigs in preparation for conversion into cast iron, wrought iron, or steel.

Pig

An oblong mass of metal that has been poured while still molten into a mold of sand, esp. such a mass of iron from a blast furnace.

Blast Furnace

A large vertical furnace for smelting iron from ore, in which combustion is intensified by a continuous blast of air through the fuel.

Cast Iron

________ is a metal alloy primarily composed of iron, with a high carbon content, typically between 2% to 4%. It is formed by pouring molten iron into molds and is known for its brittleness and good compressive strength. ___ is commonly used in applications such as engine blocks, pipes, and cookware.

Wrought Iron

__________is a low-carbon iron alloy that is malleable and ductile. It is produced by refining pig iron and working it into shape through forging or rolling. ______ has excellent corrosion resistance and was historically used in ornamental ironwork, though its use has declined in modern times.

Steel

____ is an alloy of iron and carbon, typically containing less than 2% carbon. It is produced by refining pig iron or scrap iron and is known for its high tensile strength, versatility, and durability. ___ is widely used in construction, manufacturing, and infrastructure for its structural integrity and adaptability to various applications.

Carbon

____ on iron typically refers to the process of carbon diffusion into the surface of iron or steel, resulting in the formation of a carbon-rich layer known as carburization. This process is commonly used in metallurgy to enhance the hardness and wear resistance of iron or steel components.

Carbon Steel

Ordinary, unalloyed steel in which the residual elements, as carbon, manganese, phosphorous, sulfur, and silicon, are controlled. Any increase in carbon content increases the strength and hardness if the steel but reduces its ductility and weldability.

Alloy Steel

Carbon steel to which various elements, as chromium, cobalt, copper, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, tungsten, or vanadium, have been added in a sufficient amount to obtain particular physical or chemical properties.

Alloy

______ are metallic mixtures composed of two or more elements, often including a base metal and one or more alloying elements. __________ elements are added to enhance specific properties such as strength, corrosion resistance, or conductivity. Examples of alloys include stainless steel (iron- chromium-nickel), brass (copper-zinc), and bronze (copper-tin).

Stainless Steel

An alloy steel containing a minimum of 12% chromium, sometimes nickel, manganese, or molybdenum as additional alloying elements, so as to be highly resistant to corrosion.

Non-Ferrous Metals

_________ do not contain iron as the primary constituent. Examples include aluminum, copper, zinc, lead, and titanium, each with unique properties suitable for various applications.

Aluminum

Lightweight, corrosion-resistant, and widely used in aerospace, automotive, construction, and packaging industries.

Copper

Excellent electrical and thermal conductivity, used in electrical wiring, plumbing, electronics, and roofing.

Zinc

Corrosion-resistant and often used as a protective coating for steel (galvanization), as well as in batteries, alloys, and die-casting.

Lead

Dense, malleable, and corrosion-resistant, used in batteries, radiation shielding, and construction.

Nickel

High strength, corrosion resistance, and used in alloys, batteries, electroplating, and aerospace applications.

Tin

Soft, malleable, and corrosion-resistant, used in coatings, soldering, and packaging.

Beams and Columns

Steel ________ are commonly used in the construction of buildings and bridges to provide support and stability. They bear the weight of the structure and distribute loads to the foundation.

Reinforcement Bars (Rebars)

_____ are embedded in concrete structures such as foundations, walls, and slabs to enhance their tensile strength and resistance to cracking under load.

Steel Frames

________ such as structural _____ or light-gauge ____, are used in commercial, industrial, and residential buildings. These frames provide a rigid structure, allowing for large open spaces and flexible floor plans.

Bridges

Steel is widely used in the construction of _______ due to its high strength-to-weight ratio and ability to span long distances. Steel ____ components include girders, trusses, and decks.

Highway Guardrails

Steel guardrails are installed along highways and roads to enhance safety by redirecting vehicles and preventing accidents.

Aluminum Frames

________ window frames and door frames are lightweight, strong, and resistant to corrosion, making them popular in residential and commercial construction.