China 1910 to 1950

The Manchu Dynasty

• ruled by the Qing Family from Manchuria

• Dynasty in power since 1644

• faced criticism for being “foreign” rules (not Han Chinese)

• government was corrupt

causes of the revolution of 1911

the revolution was sparked by a combination of factors, including:

• Growing nationalism and a desire for modernization and change in China. 

• Frustration with the Qing court's perceived weakness and ineffectiveness in dealing with foreign powers and internal issues. 

• The Qing government's attempts at reform, which were seen as too slow and inadequate by many revolutionaries. 

• The establishment of the Revolutionary Alliance by Sun Yat-sen, which played a significant role in organizing and mobilizing revolutionary forces

Events of the revolution of 1911

• The revolution began with a series of uprisings, most notably the Wuchang Uprising in October 1911, where soldiers from the New Army in Hubei province rebelled. 

• The Qing government initially tried to suppress the uprisings, but they ultimately failed to regain control. 

• The revolution led to the abdication of the last Qing emperor, Puyi, on February 12, 1912. 

• The Republic of China was established, with Sun Yat-sen as its provisional president. 

Wuchang Uprising (Oct 10, 1911)

began in Wuchang, Hubei province, on October 10, 1911. This uprising marked the start of the Xinhai Revolution, which ultimately led to the overthrow of China's last imperial dynasty and the establishment of the Republic of China. The revolt was initiated by members of the New Army, driven by a combination of factors including revolutionary sentiment, elite frustration, and an accidental bomb explosion. 

First President of China 1912

China declares itself a republic with Sun-Yetsen as its president and the leader of the Guomindang but resigned to give Yuan Shikai presidency.

the new army

primarily refers to the Qing Dynasty's New Army, a modernized military force established in China after the defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War. This army was distinct from the older, more traditional Qing military, and its formation was a key factor in the 1911 Revolution. 

Dissolve of National Assembly (1914)

In 1914, he dissolved the National Assembly and ruled by decree. He banned the Kuomintang (KMT) and forced Sun Yat-sen to flee to Japan.

• Ruled by decree as a military dictator.

He crushed opposition:

• Used the Beiyang Army (his loyal military) to intimidate or remove rivals.

• Suppressed the Guomindang (GMD) and forced Sun Yatsen into exile.

Foreign Deals and Controversies

• Took foreign loans to fund his regime — this angered nationalists.

• 1915: Accepted Japan’s “Twenty-One Demands

21 Demands (1915)

a series of secret demands aimed at expanding Japan's control and influence over China, effectively turning it into a Japanese protectorate. These demands were delivered during World War I, leveraging Japan's status as an Allied power and the European powers' involvement in the war. 

21 Demands 1915

The demands were presented during World War I, when Japan, as an Allied power, was in a strong position to exert pressure on China. 

• refers to a set of secret demands made by Japan to China in 1915. These demands, presented in five groups, aimed to significantly increase Japanese influence and control over China, turning it into a Japanese protectorate.

21 Demands claim (1915)

• Economic control:

  Japan sought to control China's railways, mines, and industries, including the Han-Ye-Ping mining base. 

• Territorial claims:

  The demands included Japanese control over Manchuria, Shandong province, and other areas, along with access to coastal harbours and bays. 

• Political and military control:

  China was required to accept Japanese advisors in various areas, including government, police, and financial affairs, essentially granting Japan a decisive voice in China's internal affairs. 

21 Demands Impact

• Anti-Japanese sentiment:

  The demands fueled anti-Japanese feelings in China, which would later contribute to the Sino-Japanese War. 

• Reduced Western influence:

  The demands effectively reduced the influence of Western powers in China, allowing Japan to exert greater control. 

• Later annulment:

  The Washington Naval Treaty of 1921-22 eventually annulled some of the demands, including the Japanese claim to Shandong

Yuan Declares Himself Emperor (Dec 1915)

Yuan declared himself emperor in December 1915, forming the "Hongxian Dynasty".

National Protection War (1915-1916)

The National Protection War (also called the Anti-Monarchy War) was a civil war in China from December 1915 to July 1916. It broke out in response to Yuan Shikai's attempt to become emperor and establish a new dynasty—the Empire of China.

National Protection War Events (1915-1916)

• On December 25, 1915, the provinces of Yunnan, Guizhou, and later Guangxi declared independence from Yuan's government.

• The military leaders from these provinces, especially Cai E and Tang Jiyao in Yunnan, launched a campaign called the "National Protection War" (护国战争, Hùguó Zhànzhēng).

• They called on other provinces to join the fight against Yuan's monarchy.

Significance of the National Protection War

• The National Protection War preserved the republic and prevented a return to monarchy.

• It also marked the beginning of political fragmentation in China, setting the stage for the instability of the Warlord Era (1916–1928).

• Duan Qirui takes power in Beijing but can't unite the country.

Yuan Shikai’s Death 1916

• Yuan Shikai, facing strong opposition and military defeats, abandoned his claim to the throne in March 1916.

• He died shortly after, in June 1916.

• The monarchy was never restored, and the Republic of China was reinstated.

• However, Yuan’s death led to a power vacuum, and China entered the Warlord Era, with regional military leaders fighting for control.

Rise of Warlordism 1920s

China is divided among dozens of warlords, including:

• Zhang Zuolin (Manchuria)

• Wu Peifu (Central Plains)

• Feng Yuxiang (“Christian General” in the northwest)

The May Fourth Movement (1919)

• Over 3,000 students from 13 Beijing universities marched to Tiananmen Square, protesting the Treaty of Versailles and foreign interference.

• Protesters shouted slogans like:
  ➤ “Down with imperialism!”
  ➤ “Return Shandong to China!”

• Students burned the house of a pro-Japanese official and clashed with police.

• The protests spread to Shanghai, Nanjing, and other cities, joined by workers, merchants, and intellectuals.

The May Fourth Movement Significance (1919)

Rise of Chinese Nationalism

• The movement united people across class lines in opposition to foreign domination and internal corruption.

2. Cultural Awakening

• Encouraged rejection of old Confucian values and promoted modern thinking, women’s rights, vernacular literature, and scientific progress.

3. Growth of Political Movements

• Inspired many to search for new political systems. Some turned to communism, others to nationalist reform.

• 1921: The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) was founded by Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao, both May Fourth activists.

4. Support for the Kuomintang (KMT)

• The KMT (Nationalists) also gained momentum from this wave of patriotism and anti-warlord sentiment.

the new revolutionaries (1919)

• protest against the Treaty of Versailles giving German-controlled areas in china like (Kiaochow) to Japan not returned to China

• Beijin students protested on 4 May 1919

• became a nation-wide anti chinese and anti-imperialist movement

The New Tide (or New Culture Movement)

• Intellectual response to China's weaknesses and backwardness.

• Led by thinkers at Beijing University.

• Demanded modernization:

  • Science over superstition, democracy over autocracy.

  • Simplified writing system to spread literacy.

  • Greater rights for women.

• Rejected old Confucian values and supported Western-style reform.

Birth of Chinese Communist Party (1921)

• inspired by the russian revolution in 1917

• Mao Zedong was then a librarian at Beijing University for the study of Marxism

• Chinese Communist Party was founded in 1921, seeking to build a classless society

Reorganization of the Guomindang

• Sun Yatsen wanted to unify China to modernize

• His three Principles:

  • nationalism: remove foreign influence

  • democracy: eventually introduced voting and civil liberties

  • people’s livelihood: land reforms and social change

GMD-USSR Alliance (1922-1927)

• Western powers refused to support Sun trying to unify China —> he turned to the USSR for help

• with soviet help:

  • Sun reorganized the GMD into a disciplined, mass political party

  • USSR sent advisors: Michael Borodin and General Galen

    • general galen: strengthened GMD army enough to beat warlords + unify china —> sold rifles + set up military academy

  • communists allowed to join the GMD = worked together to temporarily

Sun Yatsens death (1925)

• Chiang became head of the military

First United Front (1924-1927)

Kuomintang (KMT) and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), was formed in 1924 as an alliance to end warlordism in China. Together they formed the National Revolutionary Army and set out in 1926 on the Northern Expedition.

Northern Expedition (1926-1928)

a military campaign launched by the National Revolutionary Army (NRA) of the Kuomintang (KMT) against the Beiyang government and other regional warlords in 1926.

Northern Expedition aims and practices (1926-1928)

to defeat warlords and unify China:

• use propaganda, military action, and even bribes

• Many peasants and workers welcomed him

Split with Communists (1927)

• GMD captured Shanghai in 1927

• communist-led rebellion is already underway in the city

• Chiang betrayed the communists

  • massacred them in Shanghai (white terror)

  • Killed Guangzhou

  • thousands fled to the countryside (esp. Jiangxi and Hunan)

Nanchang uprising (1927)

Military forces in Nanchang under the leadership of He Long and Zhou Enlai rebelled in an attempt to seize control of the city after the end of the first Kuomintang-Communist alliance.

Extermination campaigns (1928-1934)

so known as Encirclement Campaigns, were a series of military offensives launched by the Kuomintang (KMT) against the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) between 1930 and 1934. These campaigns aimed to eliminate CCP's base areas

GMD national government (1928)

• capital moved to Nanjing

• Chiang Kaishek became Chairman of the state council—> effectively dictatoriship

• claimed china was unified but many areas were still ruled by warlords

• chiang lacked full control in the country sides

Jianxi Soviet (1930-1934)

The Jiangxi Soviet, sometimes referred to as the Jiangxi-Fujian Soviet, was a Soviet area governed by the Chinese Communist Party between 1931 and 1934. It was the largest component of the Chinese Soviet Republic and home to its capital, Ruijin.

rise of the Jiangxi Soviet (1930-1934)

• communists regrouped in Jiangxi province

• declared a chinese soviet republic

  • Mao Zedong as its political leader

  • Zhu de as the military commander

rise of the Jiangxi Soviety reforms (1930-1934)

• land redistribution

• reduced taxes, abolished arranged marriages

• created peasant councils and schools

• Red Army won support w/ discipline and good behavior

The Long March (1934-1935)

chiang’s extermination campaigns

• GMD launched 5 extermination campaigns (1930-1934) to destroy Jiangxi - Soviet

• first failed:

  • mao’s guerrilla tactics worked well

    • retreat when the enemy advances

    • harassment when they camp

    • attack when the retreat

• But peasants suffered millions died or were tortured

Blockhouse strategy

• planned by German advisor Hans Von Sekt

• surrounded Jianxi w/ half

• cut of supplies —> red army trapped

• 60,000 reds killed, territory shrinking

change in tactics - Otlo Braun vs Mao

• soviet advisor Otto Braun took over

• insisted on direct battles instead of Mao’s guerrilla war

• disastrous battle of guanchong: Red Army lost 8000 men

• Braun planned a retreat to Hunan-Hubei

the long march begins (16 Oct 1934)

• 87,000 red soldiers break out of Jiangxi

• carried officer records and docs (Jiangxi Soviet gov)

  • a printing press, to continue producing propaganda, newspapers, and orders

  • radio equipment: so they are staying in communication

  • gold bars and money refer

  • 33,000 guns, 2 million rounds

  • Heavy losses at Xiang River: 45,000 dead

Epic Journey to Shanxi

• Route: Jiangxi —> Zunyi —, Sichunan —> Yan’an

  • sowy mountains

  • treacherous grassland (Moayan or Zoige marshes) —> people downed

  • rivers like the Bady (crossed on swinging chains under fire)

  • harrassed by GMD, warlords, and hostile tribes

Outcome of the Long March

• only < 10,00 of the 87,00 survived

• 368 days, covered over 9000 km

• Yan’an in October 1935

• reunited w/ second and fourth front armies —> rebuilt strength to 80,000

significance of the long march

• military defeat, but a symbolic and strategic victory

• Mao Zedong became undisputed leader of the CCP

• strengthened CCP support in rural areas

Japans expansion into china

1895: defeated China in the first Sino-Japanese war

• Gained Taiwan, the Pescadores islands, and influence over Korea

1905-1905: Defeated Russia in the Russo-Japanese war

• took control of Port Arthur and South Manchurian Railway

• 1910: annexed Korean

Sino Japanese War 1895

a conflict between Qing China and Meiji Japan in 1894-1895, was primarily fought over control of the Korean Peninsula and influence in East Asia. Japan emerged victorious, securing the Treaty of Shimonoseki, which resulted in China ceding Taiwan, Penghu Islands, and the Liaodong Peninsula to Japan, and also led to Korea becoming independent from China. 

The Mukden Incident (1931)

• Japanese soliders from the Kwantung Army claimed Chinese troops sabotaged the South Manchurian Railway

• used it as an excuse to launch a full invasion of Manchuria-completely unauthorized by the Japanese Government

• by early 1932, Japan seized all of Manchuria

Mazhouguo

• Japan set up a puppet state in Manchuria called Mazhouguo

• they installed the last Qing emperor as the symbolic ruler

• real control remained with Japanese generals

International Reaction to the invasion

• LoN condemed the invasion but took no action

• Japan w/drew from league in 1933

• encouraged further aggression by showing the world would not stop

China’s Response

• chian Kaishek refused to fight japan immediately

  • argued China was to divided (still fight communsts)

  • this angerred many Chinese citizens and soldiers — especially those from Manchuria

The Xian incident (1936)

• Chiang ordered Zhang Xuelang, a Manchurian general to attacl the CCP in Yan’an

• Zhang and his soldiers did not want to fight the CCP — they wanted to fight Japan

• so in december 1936, Zhang kidnapped Chiang in Xian to force him to agree to a united front w/ the communists

Marco-Bridge Incident (July 1937)

• skirmish between Japanese and chinese troops near Beijing

• Japan used it as a pretext to launch a full-scale invasion of China

• second Sino-Japanese was began to form after this

The Rape of Nanjing (Dec 1937)

• Japanese troops comitted mass atrocities

  • 300,000 Chinese civilian and prisoners killed

  • widespread rape looting, arson

  • one of the worst atrocities in WWII

Second United Front

was the alliance between the ruling Kuomintang and the Chinese Communist Party to resist the Imperial Japanese invasion of China during the Second Sino-Japanese War, which suspended the Chinese Civil War from 1937 to 1945.

• formed reluctantly after Xian Incident

• GMD and CCP agreed to stop fighting each other and focused on resisting Japan

• communists gained prestige for their guerrilla efforts and victories in the country side

• nationalist fought more conventional battlers but suffered heavy losses

Japanese Occupation 1938

• controlled:

  • all major costal cities

  • key railways and rivers

• but struggled to control the countryside-guerrilla resistance continued

• war dragged on costing millions of lives

GMD Strategy to fight Japanese

• Fought Japanese in conventional battlers, defending cities like

  • Shanghai

  • Wuhan

• capital moved to Chongqing in Sichuan

• suffered huge losses and government was seen as:

  • corrupt

  • disconnected from the peasants

  • struggling w/ inflation and morale

CCP Strategy

• focused on guerrilla warfare behinf enemy lines

• set up base areas in Japanese - occupied zones

  • most famous: Yan’an in Shaanxi

  • where CCP rebuilt strength, trained soldiers, tested land reforms.

• Gained massive peasants support by:

  • distributed land

  • promoting literacy campaigns

  • created 8th Route Army and New Fourth Army

Tensions during the Sino-Japanese War

• Although officially allied, small clashes occured between CCp and GMD

  • 1941: Chiang ordered an attack on the New fourth Army ==> Major break down in trust

Impact of WWII

• CCP had grown stronger, increased recruitment and was seen as more in touch w/ the people

After WWII

• Power vaccum after WWII

• Japan surrendered in August 1945

  • CCP + GMD both raced to claim former Japanese-held areas

  • Brief talks w/ US Support failed

Civil War Resumes

1946 - 1949

GMD Postion

• control major cities an had a larger amy (over 2 million)

• Backed by the USA, who sent aid and military advisors

• But:

  • there was rampant corruption

  • soldiers poorly paid, badly supplied —> low morale

  • currency collapse caused by hyperinflation

CCP Position

• strong in rural areas and countryside

• high morale, disiplined (PLA-People’s Liberation Army)

• land reforem won mass suport

• used guerrilla tactics but also fought in major battles as they gre stronger

Huaihai campaign (1948)

Decisive win for the CCP

• over ½ million GMD Troops defeated

• Northeast Manchuria: crucial industrial zone captured by the CCP

Coal in Manchuria

• Daqing oil field (discovered more fully in the 1950s, but suspected earlier):

  • Later confirmed reserves: over 3 billion barrels

  • In the 1940s, smaller-scale petroleum extraction existed but wasn’t major yet

Iron Ore in Manchuria

• Anshan iron mines: Extremely rich in ore.

  • Estimated reserves: 500 million+ tons

  • Annual output (early 1940s): 1–2 million tons

  • Anshan Iron & Steel Works was one of the largest in East Asia

Oil

• Fushun coal mines: Among the largest in Asia at the time.

  • Estimated reserves: over 1 billion tons

  • Annual output (1940s): ~15 million tons

Collapse of GMD

• GMD Forces collapsed city by city

• Nanjing fell in April 1949

• Chiang Kaishek fled to taiwan w/ remaining forces

• Declared the Republic of China in exile

Victory of the CCP

• on October 1, 1949 Mao Zedong stood in Tiananmen square and declared the Peoples’ Republic of China

Overextension and Strategic Errors

• The GMD attempted to occupy as much territory as possible immediately after WWII, especially ex-Japanese strongholds.

• Their troops were spread too thin and unable to defend such a vast area effectively.

• The PLA (Communist army) lured GMD forces deep into hostile, rural territory where they could be isolated and surrounded.

Loss of Peasant Support

• The GMD failed to address land reform — they protected landlords and elites.

• In contrast, the CCP redistributed land to poor peasants, winning their loyalty and millions of recruits.

• GMD troops were often seen as corrupt outsiders, while Communist soldiers were disciplined and respectful.

• Conscription in GMD zones was often brutal, while the CCP relied more on volunteers.

Loss of Business Support

• Originally, the urban bourgeoisie and business community backed the GMD.

• But by 1948, many switched loyalty (or at least neutrality) to the CCP because:

  • GMD couldn’t control inflation.

  • Corruption made investment and business dangerous and unstable.

  • CCP promised stability, order, and fixed prices in areas it controlled.

Leadership Problems

• Chiang was seen as rigid, authoritarian, and out of touch.

• He refused to decentralize power or empower younger, more innovative leaders.

• Failed to inspire troops and civilians alike.

• His obsession with controlling the CCP distracted him from broader reform.

The Final Collapse (1949)

• April 1949: Nanjing, the GMD capital, fell to the PLA.

• May 1949: Shanghai, the economic heart of China, was taken with little resistance.

• October 1, 1949: Mao proclaimed the People’s Republic of China in Beijing.

Why the CCP won

• peasant support: CCP gave land and respect to rural farmers

• GMD Failures: corruption, economic collapse, and poor morale

• Propaganda: CCP portrayed itself as a peoples party

• Leadership: Mao’s flexible, strategic leadership

• military strategy: shifted from guerrilla warfare to full-scale offensives

Retreat to Taiwan

• Chiang Kaishek and around 2 million GMD troops, officials, and supporters fled to the island of Taiwan.

• There, Chiang declared Taipei the temporary capital of the Republic of China (ROC).

Rebuilding of China

• china was devasted after years of war — poor economy, low food supply, destroyed infrastructure

• CCP promised to: redistributive land, improve literacy + healthcare, modernize the country, establish a strong central government

Common Programe Sep 1949

• outlining the party’s plans for the future —> said that the new gov will be a democratic dictatoriship

• deomocracy for most but dangers for the counter-revolutionaries

Problems Facing the Communists

• agriculture output dropped drastically—> civil war took peasant famers away and destroyed dams, canals and irrigation systems

• civil war disrupted telephone communications roads, transport an railways

The Long March 1934–1935

The Long March was one of the most pivotal events in China's Communist Revolution. It was not just a military retreat but also a symbol of perseverance, survival, and Communist ideology. Let’s take a detailed journey through the causes, key events, data, impact, and significance of this monumental event in Chinese history!

Causes of the Long March

1. Failure of the Jiangxi Soviet

2. The Fifth Encirclement Campaign (1934)

3. Mao Zedong's Leadership

Failure of the Jiangxi Soviet

The Jiangxi Soviet, established by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) in 1931, was located in Ruijin, Jiangxi Province. It initially thrived through peasant support and land reforms, but the Kuomintang (KMT) launched repeated Encirclement Campaigns to crush the Communists.

The Fifth Encirclement Campaign (1934)

By 1934, the KMT had surrounded the Jiangxi Soviet with 500,000 soldiers. The CCP's Red Army, with around 100,000 troops, was increasingly outnumbered and overwhelmed. To survive, the Communists were forced to retreat.

Mao Zedong's Leadership

Mao Zedong emerged as the leader of the CCP during this time. He proposed guerrilla warfare and rural-based revolution, which became central to the CCP's strategy. His rise to power was cemented during the retreat as he guided the army through the Long March

The Events of the Long March (1934–1935)

1. Beginning the March: October 1934

2. Harsh Conditions

3. Harsh Conditions

Beginning the March: October 1934

The march began in October 1934 with 86,000 to 100,000 soldiers, civilians, and supporters heading from Ruijin to Shaanxi Province. They would cover over 6,000 kilometers (3,700 miles) through treacherous terrain.

Harsh Conditions

• Terrain: The path was incredibly rough, passing through mountains, swamps, and deserts.

• Weather: The marchers faced everything from sweltering heat to freezing cold.

• Starvation and Disease: Supplies ran low, and diseases like dysentery and malaria spread quickly. Around 25,000 to 30,000 marchers died due to hunger, exhaustion, and illness. 💀

• Battles: Constantly under attack by KMT forces, the Communists used guerrilla tactics to survive and keep moving.

• Zunyi Conference (January 1935): Mao Zedong solidified his leadership at this pivotal conference, shifting the CCP’s strategy to Maoist guerrilla tactics.

• The Battle of Luding Bridge (May 1935): The Red Army made a daring move to capture the Luding Bridge, a vital crossing point. This victory was symbolic of the Red Army's resilience.

Significance and Impact of the Long March

1. Political and Ideological Impact

2. Military Impact

3. Strategic and Geopolitical Impact

Political and Ideological Impact

• Mao Zedong's Ascendancy: The Zunyi Conference was the turning point where Mao took full control of the CCP. His guerrilla warfare tactics and rural revolution ideas became the foundation of the party's strategy moving forward. Mao's leadership secured his position as the undisputed leader of the CCP. 👑

• Solidification of Maoism: The Long March cemented Maoism as the guiding ideology of the CCP. It emphasized peasant-led revolution and guerrilla warfare, which became central to the Communist cause in China.

• Boost to Communist Morale: The survival of the marchers and their arrival in Yan'an served as a symbol of Communist resilience and gave the party renewed legitimacy. The Long March inspired the Chinese people, especially the peasants, and provided a foundation for future CCP victories.

Military Impact

Guerrilla Warfare Experience: The Red Army refined their guerrilla tactics during the Long March. These tactics would prove essential in fighting both the Kuomintang and the Japanese invaders during the Second Sino-Japanese War.

Unity and Discipline: The Long March fostered unity and discipline within the Red Army. Soldiers were trained to respect local peasants, pay for goods, and follow strict military conduct, making the Red Army more effective in future campaigns.

Strategic and Geopolitical Impact

• Shift to Northwest China: The Yan'an base would become the heart of Communist operations during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945). From here, the CCP organized resistance against Japanese invaders and prepared for the final stages of the Civil War.

• International Attention: The Long March drew attention from international Communists, especially in the Soviet Union, which would provide varying levels of support. It also portrayed the CCP as a resilient force against the KMT and the warlords.

Social and Cultural Impact

• Peasant Support: The Long March helped solidify the CCP's bond with the rural population. The peasants saw the Red Army as protectors from warlords and KMT oppression, further strengthening their loyalty to the Communists.

• Martyrdom and Heroism: The sacrifice and hardship endured by the Long Marchers became a key part of Communist propaganda, symbolizing sacrifice and heroism for the greater good. It made the CCP appear as a force willing to endure anything to achieve revolution.