UVA Child Psychology 2700 textbook terms Exam 1

meta analysis

a method for combining the results from independent studies to reach conclusions based on all of them

nature

our biological endowment; genes we receive from parents

nurture

the environments, both physical and social, that influence our development

genome

each person's complete set of hereditary information

epigenetics

the study of stable changes in gene expression that are mediated by the environment

methylation

a biochemical process that influences behavior by suppressing gene activity and expression

continuous development

the idea that changes with age occur gradually, in small increments, like that of a pine tree growing taller and taller

discontinuous development

the idea that changes with age include occasional large shifts, like the transition from caterpillar to cocoon to butterfly

stage theories

approaches proposing that development involves a series of large, discontinuous, age-related phases

cognitive development

the development of thinking and reasoning

Neurotransmitters

chemicals involved in communication among brain cells

sociocultural context

the physical, social, cultural, economic, and historical circumstances that make up any child's environment

socioeconomic status (SES)

a measure of social class that is based on income, education, and occupation

cumulative risk

the accumulation of disadvantages over years of development

reliability

the degree to which independent measurements of a given behavior are consistent

interrater reliability

the amount of agreement in the observations of different raters who witness the same behavior

test-retest reliability

the degree of similarity of a child's performance on two or more occasions

validity

the degree to which a test measures what it is intended to measure

internal validity

the degree to which effects observed within experiments can be attributed to the factor that the researcher is testing

external validity

the degree to which results can be generalized beyond the particulars of the research

structured interview

a research procedure in which all participants are asked to answer the same questions

questionnaires

a method that allows researchers to gather information from a large number of participants simultaneously by presenting them a uniform set of printed questions

clinical interview

a procedure in which questions are adjusted in accord with the answers the interviewee provides

naturalistic observation

examination of ongoing behavior in an environment not controlled by the researcher

structured observation

a method that involves presenting an identical situation to each child and recording the child's behavior

variables

attributes that vary across individuals and situations, such as age, sex, and popularity

correlational designs

studies intended to indicate how two variables are related to each other

correlation

the association between two variables

direction of causation problem

the concept that a correlation between two variables does not indicate which, if either, variable is the cause of the other

third variable problem

the concept that a correlation between two variables may stem from both being influenced by some third variable

experimental designs

a group of approaches that allow inferences about causes and effects to be drawn

random assignment

a procedure in which each participant has an equal probability of being assigned to any one of the conditions in the experiment

experimental control

the ability of researchers to determine the specific experiences that children have during the course of an experiment

experiment group

the group of participants in an experimental design who are presented the experience of interest

control group

The group in an experiment where the independent variable being tested is not applied so that it may serve as a standard for comparison against the experimental group where the independent variable is applied

independent variable

the experience that participants in the experimental group receive and that those in the control do not

dependent variable

a behavior that is measured to determine whether it is affected by exposure to the independent variable

cross sectional design

a research method in which participants of different ages are compared on a given behavior or characteristic over a short period

longitudinal study

a method of study in which the same participants are studied twice or more over a substantial length of time

microgenetic design

a method of study in which the same participants are studied repeatedly over a short period

epigenesis

the emergence of new structures and functions in the course of development

gametes (germ cells)

reproductive cells (egg and sperm) that contain half the genetic material of all other cells in the body

meiosis

Cell division that produces gametes

conception

the union of an egg from the mother and a sperm from the father

zygote

fertilized egg cell

embryo

the developing organism from 3-8 week

fetus

developing organism from 9 week - birth

mitosis

cell division

embryonic stem cells

embryonic cells, which can develop into any type of body cell

apoptosis

genetically programmed cell death

identical twins MZ

twins that result from the splitting in half of the zygote, resulting in each of the two resulting zygotes having exactly the same set of genes

fraternal twins DZ

twins that result when two eggs happen to be released into the fallopian tube at the same time and are fertilized by two dif sperm; fraternal twins have only half their genes in common

neural tube

a groove formed in the top layer of differentiated cells in the embryo that eventually becomes the brain and spinal cord

amniotic sac

a transparent, fluid-filled membrane that surrounds and protects the fetus

placenta

a support organ for the fetus; it keeps the circulatory systems of the fetus and mother separate, but as a semipermeable membrane permits the exchange of some materials between them (oxygen and nutrients from mother to fetus and carbon dioxide and waste products from fetus to mother)

umbilical cord

a tube containing the blood vessels connecting the fetus and placenta

cephalocaudal development

the pattern of growth in which areas near the head develop earlier than areas farther from the head

phylogenetic continuity

the idea that because of our common evolutionary history, humans share many characteristics, behaviors, and developmental processes with other animals, especially mammals

habituation

a simple form of learning that involves a decrease in response to repeated or continued stimulation

dishabituation

the introduction of a new stimulus rekindles interest following habituation to a repeated stimulus

teratogen

an external agent that can cause damage or death during prenatal development

sensitive period

the period of time during which a developing organism is most sensitive to the effects of external factors

dose response relation

a relation in which the effect of exposure to an element increases with the extent of exposure (prenatally, the more exposure a fetus has to a potential teratogen, the more severe its effect is likely to be)

sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)

the sudden, unexpected death of an infant less than 1 year of age that has no identifiable cause

fetal alcohol spectrum disorder

the harmful effects of maternal alcohol consumption on a developing fetus

state

level of arousal and engagement in the environment, ranging from deep sleep to intense activity

REM sleep

an active sleep state characterized by quick, jerky eye movements under closed lids and associated with dreaming in adults

non REM sleep

a quiet or deep sleep state characterized by the absence of motor activity or eye movements and more regular, slow brain waves, breathing, and heart rate

swaddling

a soothing technique, used in many cultures, that involves wrapping a baby tightly in cloths or a blanket

colic

excessive, inconsolable crying by a young infant for no apparent reason

apgar score

method for evaluating the health of the newborn immediately following birth based on skin tone, pulse rate, facial response, arm and leg activity, and breathing

infant mortality

death during the first year after birth

low birth weight

a birth weight of less than 5.5 lbs

premature

any child born at 35 weeks after conception or earlier (as opposed to the normal term of 38 weeks)

small for gestational age

babies who weigh substantially less than is normal for whatever their gestational age

developmental resilience

successful development in spite of multiple and seemingly overwhelming developmental hazards

genotype

the genetic material an individual inherits

phenotype

expression of genotype

environment

every aspect of an individual and his or her surroundings other than genes

chromosomes

molecules of DNA that transmit genetic information; chromosomes are made up of DNA

DNA

molecules that carry all the biochemical instructions involved in the formation and functioning of an organism

genes

sections of chromosomes that are the basic unit of heredity in all living things

crossing over

the process by which sections of DNA switch from one chromosome to the other; crossing over promotes variability among individuals

mutation

a change in a section of DNA

sex chromosomes

the chromosomes that determine an individual's designated sex at birth

endophenotypes

intermediate phenotypes, including the brain and nervous systems, that do not involve overt behavior

regulator genes

genes that control the activity of other genes

alleles

two or more different forms of a gene

dominant allele

the allele, if present, that gets expressed

recessive allele

the allele that is not expressed if a dominant allele is present

homozygous

having two identical alleles for a trait

heterozygous

having two different alleles for a trait

polygenic inheritance

inheritance pattern in which traits are governed by more than one gene

carrier genetic testing

genetic testing used to determine whether prospective parents are carriers of specific disorders

prenatal testing

genetic testing used to assess the fetus's risk for genetic disorders

Newborn screening

tests used to screen newborn infants for a range of genetic and non-genetic disorders

behavior genetics

the science concerned with how variation in behavior and development results from the combination of genetic and environmental factors

heritable

refers to characteristics or traits that are genetically transmitted

Heritability

A statistical estimate of the proportion of the total variance in some trait that is attributable to genetic differences among individuals within a group

neurons

cells that are specialized for sending and receiving messages between the brain and all parts of the body, as well as within the brain itself