Semester Final AP Psych

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Case Study

* - An observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

Control Condition

* - (Group) - The condition or group of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental condition or group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

Correlation

* - A statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

Dependent Variable

* - The experimental factor-in psychology, the behavior or mental process-that is being measured; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

Double-blind Procedure

* - An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

Experiment

* - A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, it controls other relevant factors.

Experimental Condition

* - (Group) - The condition or group of an experiment that exposes participants to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also know as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.)

Hypothesis

* - A testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

Illusory Correlation

The perception of a relationship where none exists.

Independent Variable

* - The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

Naturalistic Observation

* - Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

Operational Definition

* - A statement of the procedures used to define research variables.

Placebo Effect

* - Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which is assumed to be an active agent.

Population

* - All the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study.

Random Assignment

* - Assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups.

Random Sample

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Replication

* - Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.

Scatterplot

A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables.

Survey

* - A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them.

Absolute Threshold

* - The minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 189)

Bottom-up Processing

* - Analysis that begins with the sense receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 188)

Difference Threshold

* - The minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time. (Also called just noticeable difference or jnd.) (Myers Psychology 7e p. 192)

Perception

* - The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 188)

Selective Attention

The focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus, as in the cocktail party effect. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 193)

Sensation

* - The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 188)

Sensory Adaptation

* - Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 192)

Top-down Processing

* - Information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 188)

Subliminal

* - Below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 190)

Accommodation

* - (perceptual) - The process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 199)

Blind Spot

* - The point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye and does not contain receptor cells. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 200)

Color Constancy

Perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 208)

Cones

* - Receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. They detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 199)

Farsightedness

A condition in which faraway objects are seen more clearly than near objects because the image of near objects is focused behind the retina. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 199)

Fovea

* - The central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 201)

Hue

* - The dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 197)

Intensity

The amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 197)

Iris

* - A ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 197)

Lens

* - The transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 199)

Nearsightedness

A condition in which nearby objects are seen more clearly than distant objects because distant objects focus in front of the retina. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 199)

Opponent-process Theory

* - (color) - The theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 207)

Optic Nerve

* - The nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 200)

Parallel Processing

The processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 204)

Pupil

* - The adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 197)

Retina

* - The light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 199)

Rods

* - Retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 199)

Transduction

* - Conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies into neural impulses. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 197)

Wavelength

The distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 197)

Audition

The sense of hearing. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 210)

Cochlea

* - A coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 211)

Conduction Hearing Loss

Hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 215)

Frequency

The number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for example, per second). (Myers Psychology 7e p. 210)

Inner Ear

The innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 211)

Middle Ear

The chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 211)

Pitch

* - A tone's highness or lowness; depends on frequency. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 210)

Sensorineural Hearing Loss

Hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 215)

Binocular Cues

* - Depth cues, such as retinal disparity and convergence, that depend on the use of two eyes. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 234)

Convergence

* - A binocular cue for perceiving depth; the extent to which the eyes turn inward when looking at an object. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 235)

Depth Perception

The ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 233)

Figure-ground

The organization of the visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 232)

Gestalt

An organized whole. Emphasizes our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 231)

Grouping

The perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 232)

Monocular Cues

* - Distance cues, such as linear perspective and overlap, available to either eye alone. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 234)

Perceptual Constancy

* - Perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent lightness, color, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 239)

Retinal Disparity

* - A binocular cue for perceiving depth: By comparing images from the two eyeballs, the brain computes distance - the greater the difference between the two images, the closer the object. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 234)

Visual Capture

The tendency for vision to dominate the other senses. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 231)

Visual Cliff

A laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 233)

Cognitive Map

* - A mental representation of the layout of one's environment. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 325)

Continuous Reinforcement

* - Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 322)

Extrinsic Motivation

A desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 326)

Fixed-interval Schedule

* - In operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 323)

Fixed-ratio Schedule

* - In operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 322)

Intrinsic Motivation

A desire to perform a behavior for its own sake and to be effective. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 326)

Latent Learning

* - Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 326)

Learning

* - A relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience. (Myers Psychology 7e pp. 306, 319, 333)

Operant Behavior

Behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 318)

Operant Chamber (Skinner Box)

A chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer, with attached devices to record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking. Used in operant conditioning research. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 319)

Operant Conditioning

* - A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 318)

Overjustification Effect

The effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do. The person may now see the reward, rather than intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 326)

Partial (intermittent) Reinforcement

* - Reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 322)

Primary Reinforcer

* - An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 321)

Punishment

* - An event that decreases the behavior that it follows. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 323)

Reinforcer

In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 321)

Variable-interval Schedule

* - In operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 323)

Variable-ratio Schedule

* - In operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 323)

Acquisition

The initial stage in classical conditioning; the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 308)

Classical Conditioning (Pavlovian conditioning)

* - A type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus. Also called Pavlovian conditioning. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 306)

Conditioned Response (CR)

* - In classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus (CS). (Myers Psychology 7e p. 307)

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

* - In classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), comes to trigger a conditioned response. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 307)

Discrimination

* - In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. Also known as Stimulus Discrimination. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 311)

Extinction

* - (classical conditioning) - The diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS). (Myers Psychology 7e p. 309)

Generalization

* - The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. Also know as Stimulus Generalization.(Myers Psychology 7e p. 310)

Spontaneous Recovery

* - The reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished conditioned response. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 310)

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

* - In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), such as salivation when food is in the mouth. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 307)

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

* - In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally - naturally and automatically - triggers a response. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 307)

Mirror Neurons

Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 333)

Modeling

The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 333)