PSYCH UNIT 4

acquisition

In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response.

In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

Adaptability

Capable of being modified to suit different conditions or a different purpose

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).

Behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

behavior modification

the use of basic learning techniques to change unwanted individual or group behavior.

Biofeedback

a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli.

Ex: pavlov- a tone leads to drooling in anticipation of food.

cognitive learning

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment.

Ex: after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

conditioned response (CR)

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)

continuous reinforcement

a type of learning in which behavior is reinforced each time it occurs.

Ex: every time a child remembers to raise their hand in class, the teacher gives them a sticker.

coping strategies

the behaviors, thoughts, and emotions that you use to adjust to the changes that occur in your life.

emotion-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one's stress reaction

problem-focused coping

Attempting to alleviate stress directly by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor.

Discrimination

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

in operant conditioning, the ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that are not reinforced.

emotional learning/ social learning

process through which individuals learn and apply a set of social, emotional, and related skills, attitudes, behaviors, and values that help direct students.

external locus of control

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate.

Extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

fixed-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

fixed-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified # of responses

higher-order conditioning

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.)

Generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

Habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated exposure to a stimulus.

insight learning

immediate and clear learning or understanding that takes place without overt trial-and-error testing

instinctive drift

the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns

internal locus of control

the perception that you control your own fate

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake.

Ex: playing sports bc you enjoy how they make you feel.

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

learned helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

Learning

the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors

mirror neurons

frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy

Modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

Motivation

a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior

observational learning

learning by observing others; aka social learning

conditioned stimulus (CS)

in classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response.

neutral stimulus

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

operant chamber

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking.

Skinner Box

small animal chamber constructed by Skinner to allow sustained periods of conditioning to be administered and behaviors to be recorded unsupervised

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

negative punishment

the removal of a reinforcing stimulus following a behavior in order to decrease the liklihood of that behavior occurring again.

negative reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

partial (intermittent) reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

positive punishment

adding an aversive stimulus after an unwanted behavior to discourage a person from repeating the behavior.

positive reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

practice

the act of doing something repeatedly to improve your skill at doing it.

primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

prosocial

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior

antisocial

mental health condition in which a person has a long term pattern of manipulating, exploiting, or violating the rights of others.

Reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

response/respondent behaviors/operant behaviors

A behavior that was the result of a stimulus.

schedules of reinforcement

the rules that determine how often an organism is reinforced for a particular behavior

secondary (conditioned) reinforcers

a stimulus that reinforces a behavior after it has been associated with a primary reinforcer.

self-control

the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards

Shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

Stimulus

any event/situation that evokes a response

superstitious behavior

behavior that is accidentally reinforced

taste aversion

a learned avoidance of a particular food

theory of mind

people's ideas about their own and others' mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.

variable-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

variable-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

unconditioned stimulus (US)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers an unconditioned response.

unconditioned response (UR)

in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth)

vicarious punishment

a decrease in the frequency of certain behaviors as a results of seeing others punished for the same actions.

vicarious reinforcement

when the frequency of certain behaviors increases as a result of observing others rewarded for the same behaviors.

violence-viewing effect

the extent that our aggressive behaviors stem from the observation of TV

Albert Bandura

• social learning

• self-efficacy

• bobo doll experiment: demonstrates how the behavior of adults easily influences children.

  (adults received praise for their aggressive behavior, and as a result, the liklihood of the children striking the doll increased).

Ivan Pavlov

• classical conditioning

• dog experiment: demonstrated salivation of dogs through a series of experiments where he paired the sound of a bell with the presentation of food.

Robert Rescorla

• associative learning

• "truly random control" procedure: underlined the importance of continuity between a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus in learning.

  (played specific tones of sound for lab rats)

B.F. Skinner

• operant conditioning

• the skinner box: showed how positive reinforcement worked by placing a hungry rat in the box.

Edward Thorndike

• law of effect

• "puzzle box" experiment: a cat was put in a box with food on the outside of the cage, recording the time it took for the cat to escape.

Edward Tolman

• latent learning

• rats in mazes: experiment that examined the role of reinforcement in how rats learn their way through mazes.

John B. Watson

• Behaviorism

• Little albert experiment: conditioned a small child to fear a white rat.

John Garcia

• Taste aversion

• Bright-noisy-water experiment: demonstrated a rat that associated a taste, but not a light or sound, with illness.