Unit 1: Foundations of American Democracy

Weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation

The Articles created a loose confederation of states with a weak central government that lacked power to tax, regulate commerce, or enforce laws. It required unanimous consent to amend and had no executive or judiciary.

Daniel Shays

A former Revolutionary War soldier who led a rebellion (Shays' Rebellion) in 1786-87 against economic injustices and state government weakness, exposing the inadequacies of the Articles of Confederation.

The Constitutional Convention (1787)

A meeting in Philadelphia to revise the Articles of Confederation, but resulted in drafting a new Constitution.

Virginia Plan

Proposed by large states; representation based on population.

New Jersey Plan

Proposed by small states; equal representation per state.

Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise)

Created a bicameral legislature—House based on population, Senate with equal representation.

Branches of Government

The Constitution established three branches: legislative, executive, and judicial—each with checks and balances.

Slavery and the 3/5 Compromise

For representation and taxation, three out of every five enslaved persons would be counted.

Popular Sovereignty

Power resides with the people.

Checks and Balances

Each branch can limit the others.

Federalism

Division of power between national and state governments.

Separation of Powers

Distinct responsibilities for each branch.

Limited Government

Government powers are restricted by law.

Ratification

The process of approving the Constitution, requiring nine of thirteen states.

Federalists

Supported the Constitution; favored a strong central government.

Federalist #10

Argues that a large republic can control factions and prevent tyranny.

Federalist #51

Advocates for checks and balances and separation of powers.

Federalist #70

Supports a strong, single executive for accountability and energy.

Federalist #78

Justifies judicial review and a life-tenured judiciary.

Anti-Federalists

Opposed the Constitution; feared central authority and lack of a bill of rights.

Brutus 1

Warns against a large central government overpowering the states.

The Amendments and Federalism

The Bill of Rights (first 10 amendments) was added to satisfy Anti-Federalists and protect individual liberties; several amendments (e.g., 10th) reinforce federalism by reserving powers to the states.

Three Types of Government

Unitary: Centralized government holds most power. Federal: Power shared between national and state governments. Confederate: States hold power; weak central government.

Dual Federalism

"Layer cake" federalism where national and state governments operate separately.

Marble Cake Federalism

Cooperative federalism where powers are mixed and intertwined.

Enumerated Powers

Powers explicitly granted to Congress in the Constitution (e.g., coin money, declare war).

Reserved Powers

Powers not granted to the federal government are reserved for the states (10th Amendment).

Concurrent Powers

Powers shared by both federal and state governments (e.g., tax, build roads).

Fiscal Federalism

The federal government uses money (grants) to influence state policies.

Grants-in-aid Program

Federal funds given to states for specific purposes.

Categorical Grants

Specific-purpose grants with strict guidelines.

General Revenue Sharing

Federal funds with minimal restrictions (phased out).

Block Grants

Funds for broad purposes with state discretion.

U.S. v. Lopez (1995)

Limited Congress's power under the Commerce Clause; first major decision to restrict federal power in decades.

Devolution

The transfer of powers from the federal government to the states.

Mandates

Federal requirements imposed on states, sometimes without funding (unfunded mandates).

Participatory Democracy

A model emphasizing broad participation in politics and civil society by citizens.

Pluralist Democracy

This theory posits that political power is distributed among many competing interest groups.

Elite Democracy

A model suggesting that a small number of people influence political decision-making.

Declaration of Independence (1776)

Authored primarily by Thomas Jefferson, it articulates the colonies' reasons for seeking independence.

Articles of Confederation (1781)

The first constitution of the U.S., creating a confederation of sovereign states with a weak central government.

U.S. Constitution (1787)

The supreme law of the United States, establishing the national government's structure, functions, and limitations.

Natural Rights

Rights inherent to all humans, such as life, liberty, and property.

Social Contract

The idea that people consent to form governments to protect their rights.

Republicanism

A political ideology centered on citizenship in a state organized as a republic.

Supremacy Clause (Article VI)

Establishes that the Constitution and federal laws take precedence over state laws.

Necessary and Proper Clause (Elastic Clause)

Grants Congress the power to pass all laws necessary and proper for executing its enumerated powers.

Commerce Clause

Gives Congress the authority to regulate commerce with foreign nations, among the states, and with Native American tribes.

Electoral College

A compromise between election of the president by Congress and election by popular vote.

Article V

Outlines the process for amending the Constitution, requiring proposal by two-thirds of Congress and ratification by three-fourths of the states.