1ST: BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES

Biological Molecules

Are the most essential organic molecules, which are involved in the maintenance and metabolic processes of living organisms.

Biological Molecules

The actual foot-soldiers of the battle of sustenance of life

Biological Molecules

They range from small molecules such as primary and secondary metabolites and hormones to large macromolecules like proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, lipids etc.

carbohydrates

hormones

RNA/DNA

neurotransmitter/hormones

Biomolecules may be involved in several processes such as energy storage (___), catalyzing the biochemical reactions (___), storing/transmitting the genetic codes (___), or altering biological and neurological activities (___)

Carbohydrates

Are a class of organic compounds consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms.

Carbohydrates

They serve as one of the primary macronutrients in the diet of most living organisms, including plants, animals, and microorganisms.

Carbohydrates

When consumed, they are broken down into glucose, which is used for cellular respiration to produce ATP.

SIMPLE

COMPLEX

Carbohydrates are classified either as ___ or ___

Monosaccharides

Disaccharides

SIMPLE SUGARS

Monosaccharides

Consists of single sugar molecules (one saccharide)

Monosaccharides

They serve as the basic building blocks for more complex carbohydrates

Monosaccharides

It can undergo dehydration synthesis to form oxygen covalent bonds that allow them to bind with other monosaccharides to form disaccharides.

glucose, fructose, and galactose

Common monosaccharides

ribose and deoxyribose

Other prominent monosaccharides include ___ and ___ that help in structuring our Nucleic Acid.

Glucose

Used in dextrose, blood sugar; the form utilized by the human body.

Galactose

Found in milk and milk products

Fructose

Found in fruits and honey

Disaccharides

Composed of two monosaccharide molecules linked together by glycosidic linkage.

Disaccharides

Also called double sugar.

Disaccharides

These sugars are typically broken down into monosaccharides during digestion.

maltose

glucose + glucose

sucrose

glucose + fructose

lactose

glucose + galactose

maltose

found in malt

sucrose

found in regular table sugar, sugarcane, and sugar beet

lactose

found in milk and milk products

Oligosaccharides

Polysaccharides

COMPLEX SUGARS

Oligosaccharides

Are sugars that often arise from 2-10 monosaccharide units bound together through O-glycosidic covalent bonds

Oligosaccharides

These bonds can be broken down through Hydrolysis (process of adding water) to revert and break down these conjoined carbohydrates into their monomers.

True

Disaccharides can be oligosaccharides but not all oligosaccharides are identified as disaccharides.

monosaccharides

Oligosaccharides may be classified based on the number of ___ they contain.

Trisaccharides

are oligosaccharides composed of three monosaccharides.

maltotriose

glucose + glucose + fructose

raffinose

galactose + glucose + fructose

kestose

glucose + fructose + fructose

Tetrasaccharides

are oligosaccharides composed of four monosaccharides.

nystose

glucose + fructose + fructose + fructose

sesamose

galactose + galactose + fructose + glucose

stachyose

galactose + galactose + glucose + fructose

Pentasaccharides

are those composed of five sugar units. N-linked oligosaccharides are mostly this.

Hexasaccharides

are oligosaccharides comprising six sugar units.

Hepta

Octa

Nona

Deca

-saccharides

7, 8, 9, 10 saccharides

Polysaccharides

complex carbohydrates formed by the bonding of hundreds or thousands of monosaccharide units. (many saccharides)

Storage (Starch and Glycogen)

Structural  (Cellulose)

TWO TYPES OF POLYSACCHARIDES

starch/amylose

amylopectin

storage form of glucose in plants

glycogen

storage form of glucose animal; stored in the liver and muscles

cellulose

structural material in plants—cell wall in wood, wood fiber cannot be digested by humans.

Proteins

Are  composed  of  four  elements,  namely:  carbon,  hydrogen, oxygen,  and  nitrogen.

Proteins

If  carbohydrates  are  made  up  of  saccharides,  they  are  made  up  of amino acids.

Proteins

Are  made  up  of  amino  acids  combined  through  a  dehydration  link called a peptide bond.

Keratin

Fibroin  /  Silk  protein

Collagen

Enzymes

Myoglobin

Examples of proteins:

Keratin

is a structural protein found in hair, skin, and nails.

Fibroin  /  Silk  protein

is  found  in  silk.  Silk  has  a  smooth  and  soft texture.  It  is  one  of  the  strongest  natural  fibers  that  have  high  resistance  to deformation. It is also a good insulating material.

Collagen

is  a  major insoluble  fibrous  protein found in connective tissues  such as  tendons,  ligaments,  skin,  cartilage  and  the  cornea  of  the  eye.  It  comprises  as much as 30% of proteins in animals.

Enzymes

function  to  catalyze  chemical  reactions.  They  either  speed  up  a reaction, lower the needed energy for a reaction to take place, or bind substances to their specific partners.

Lipase

Pepsin

Sucrase

Examples of enzymes:

Lipase

help in digestion of fats

Pepsin

help in breaking down proteins into peptides (smaller units)

Sucrase

also  called  invertase;  help  in  the  digestion  of  sugars  and starches

Myoglobin

is  a  polypeptide  that  stores  oxygen  in  muscles.  It  contains  a  heme group which has an iron where the oxygen is stored.

Lipids

Are organic compounds that contain hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen atoms, which form the framework for the structure and function of living cells.

Lipids

Nonpolar molecules, which are soluble only in nonpolar solvents and insoluble in water

Lipids

In addition to their role as the primary component of cell membranes, it can be metabolized for use as a primary energy source.

Lipid Metabolism

involves the degradation of fatty acids, which are fundamental biological molecules and the building blocks of more structurally complex lipids.

Nonsaponifiable Lipids

Saponifiable Lipids

Classification of Lipids

Nonsaponifiable Lipids

A nonsaponifiable lipid cannot be disintegrated into smaller molecules through hydrolysis

Nonsaponifiable Lipids

Include cholesterol, prostaglandins, etc

Saponifiable Lipids

It comprises one or more ester groups, enabling it to undergo hydrolysis in the presence of a base, acid, or enzymes, including waxes, triglycerides, sphingolipids and phospholipids.

Saponifiable Lipids

Can be divided into non-polar and polar lipids.

Nonpolar lipids

namely triglycerides, are utilized as fuel and to store energy.

Polar lipids

that could form a barrier with an external water environment, are utilized in membranes. Polar lipids comprise sphingolipids and glycerophospholipids.

Fats

Waxes

Simple Lipids Examples

Simple Lipids

Esters of fatty acids with various alcohols.

Fats

Esters of fatty acids with glycerol.

Oils

are fats in the liquid state

Fats

Can be unsaturated, saturated, and trans fatty.

Saturated Fats

Unsaturated Fats

TWO CLASSES of Fats

Saturated Fats

have two carbons attached to each carbon (except the one at the end)

They are unhealthy fats 

Foods like butter, palm and coconut oils, cheese, and red meat have high amounts of these

Unsaturated Fats

are missing at least one hydrogen and are curl in shape. 

They are healthy, and include foods like avocados, canola oil, cashews, olive oil, peanut butter, peanuts, sesame oil, and sesame seeds.

Waxes

Esters of fatty acids with higher molecular weight monohydric alcohols

Complex Lipids

Esters of fatty acids containing groups in addition to alcohol and fatty acid.

Phospholipids

These are lipids containing, in addition to fatty acids and alcohol, phosphate groups. They frequently have nitrogen-containing bases and other substituents, eg, in glycerophospholipids the alcohol is glycerol and in sphingophospholipids the alcohol is sphingosine.

Glycolipids (glycosphingolipids)

Lipids containing a fatty acid, sphingosine and carbohydrate.

Nucleic Acids

play an essential role in the storage, transfer, and expression of  genetic  information

Nucleic Acids

They are long-chain polymeric molecules, the monomer (the repeating unit) is known as the nucleotides.

polynucleotides

 sometimes nucleic acids are referred to as ___

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and  RNA(ribonucleic  acid)

The most common examples of nucleic acids

DNA

a  nucleic  acid that  carries  the  genetic  code  of organisms.  It  is  fondly  termed  as  the  blueprint  of  life.

RNA

carries  the  information from  the  DNA to the  cellular  factories for  the  synthesis of proteins.

Messenger RNA (m-RNA)

Ribosomal RNA (r-RNA)

Transfer RNA (t-RNA)

three types of RNA molecules

Messenger RNA (m-RNA)

transcribes the genetic code from DNA into a form that can be read and used to make proteins. It carries genetic information from the nucleus to the cytoplasm of a cell.

Ribosomal RNA (r-RNA)

located in the cytoplasm of a cell, where ribosomes are found. It directs the translation of mRNA into proteins.

Transfer RNA (t-RNA)

brings or transfers amino acids to the ribosome that corresponds to each three-nucleotide codon of rRNA. The amino acids then can be joined together and processed to make polypeptides and proteins.

nucleotides

They form the basic blocks of DNA and RNA.

Phospate Group

are structural parts of nucleotides that form the directionality of the nucleic acid in the Sugar-Phosphate backbone.

leading strand

lagging strands

These directionality can be in the 5’3’ strand that forms the ___ while the 3’5’ directionality forms the ___.

Sugar Groups

Monosaccharide units found in DNA and RNA (nucleic acids) which can be deoxyribose and ribose.

Sugar Groups

While they form the sugar-phosphate backbone, the primary role of this lies in its ability to connect with other nucleotides in a strand, forming the connection of nucleic acids that build up RNA and DNA. These connections are called phosphodiester bonds, which are similar to dehydration synthesis and help in connecting nucleotides in a single strand.

Nitrogenous Bases

These are nitrogen containing molecules that serve as the primary genetic code.

Pyrimidines

Purines

Nitrogenous Bases can be classified into two types