Unit 1 AP psych

1

Nature - Nurture issue

The debate over the relative contributions of genetics (nature) and environment (nurture) to human development and behavior.

Charles Darwin

19th-century naturalist who proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection.

Natural Selection

The process by which organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring.

evolutionary psychology

The study of how evolutionary principles such as natural selection influence behavior and mental processes.

behavior genetics

The field that studies the relative effects of genes and environment on behavior.

Mutation

A random error or change in the DNA sequence that can lead to genetic variation.

environment

All external conditions and influences affecting an organism's development.

Heredity

The passing of genetic traits from parents to offspring.

Genes

Units of heredity made of DNA that influence traits

Genome

The complete set of genetic material in an organism

Identical (Monozygotic) Twins

Twins formed from one fertilized egg that splits, sharing nearly identical DNA.

Fraternal (Dizygotic) Twins

Twins formed from two separate eggs fertilized by different sperm, genetically similar like siblings.

Interaction

The interplay between genes and environment influencing development.

Epigenetics

The study of changes in gene expression caused by environmental factors without altering the DNA sequence.

Nervous System

The body's communication network, made up of neurons that transmit signals.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The brain and spinal cord; processes information and controls the body.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

All nerves outside the CNS that connect the body to the brain and spinal cord.

Nerves

Bundles of neuron fibers that transmit signals through the body.

sensory (afferent) neurons

Neurons that carry messages from sensory receptors to the CNS.

motor (efferent) neurons

Neurons that carry messages from the CNS to muscles and glands.

Interneurons

Neurons that connect sensory and motor neurons, processing information within the CNS.

somatic nervous system

Part of the PNS controlling voluntary movements of skeletal muscles.

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

Part of the PNS controlling involuntary functions like heartbeat and digestion.

sympathetic nervous system

Branch of ANS that prepares the body for fight-or-flight during stress.

parasympathetic nervous system

Branch of ANS that calms the body and conserves energy after stress.

Reflex

An automatic, involuntary response to a stimulus.

Neuron

A nerve cell that transmits electrical and chemical signals.

cell body

The part of a neuron containing the nucleus and organelles.

Deandrites

Branch-like structures that receive messages from other neurons.

Axon

Long fiber that carries electrical impulses away from the cell body.

myelin sheath

Fatty layer that insulates axons to speed up neural impulses.

glial cells (glia)

Support cells that nourish and protect neurons.

action potential

An electrical impulse that travels down the axon.

threshold

The level of stimulation needed to trigger an action potential.

refractory period

The time after an action potential when a neuron cannot fire again immediately.

all-or-none response

Neurons either fire at full strength or not at all

Synapse

The junction between neurons where communication occurs.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that transmit signals across a synapse.

Reuptake

The process where neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the sending neuron.

Endorphins

Natural neurotransmitters that reduce pain and increase pleasure.

Agonist

A chemical that mimics or enhances the effect of a neurotransmitter.

Antagonist

A chemical that blocks or inhibits a neurotransmitter's action.

endocrine system

A network of glands that produce hormones regulating bodily functions.

Hormones

Chemical messengers secreted into the bloodstream by glands.

psychoactive drugs

A substance that alters perception, mood, or consciousness.

substance use disorder

A condition characterized by compulsive drug use despite harmful consequences.

Depressants

Drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions.

Tolerance

The need for larger doses of a drug to achieve the same effect.

addiction

A compulsive craving for a substance despite negative effects.

Barbiturates

Depressant drugs used to induce sleep or reduce anxiety.

Opioids

Drugs that relieve pain and produce euphoria; derived from opium.

Stimulants

Drugs that increase neural activity and speed up bodily functions.

Hallucinogens

Drugs that cause altered perceptions and sensory experiences.

Near-Death Experience

An altered state of consciousness reported after close encounters with death.

Biological Psychology

The study of how biological processes influence behavior and mental processes.

Biopsychosocial Approach

An integrated perspective that considers biological, psychological, and social factors.

Levels of Analysis

Different ways of explaining behavior, from biological to social-cultural.

Neuroplasticity

The brain's ability to change and adapt by forming new neural connections.

Lesion

damaged area of the brain used to study brain function.

EEG (Electroencephalogram)

A test that records electrical activity of the brain.

MEG (Magnetoencephalography)

A technique that measures magnetic fields produced by neural activity.

CT (Computed Tomography) Scan

An X-ray imaging method that produces detailed brain images.

PET (Positron Emission Tomography)

Imaging technique that shows brain activity by tracking glucose consumption.

MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

Imaging technique using magnetic fields and radio waves to visualize brain structure.

Hindbrain

The lower brain region including the medulla, pons, and cerebellum; controls basic life functions.

Midbrain

The brain region involved in movement, vision, and hearing.

Forebrain

The largest brain region responsible for complex behaviors and cognitive functions.

Brainstem

The oldest brain region that connects the brain to the spinal cord and controls automatic survival functions.

Medulla

The base of the brainstem that controls heartbeat and breathing.

Thalamus

Brain's sensory control center, directing messages to the cortex.

Reticular Formation

A nerve network controlling arousal and attention.

Cerebellum

"Little brain" at the rear that coordinates voluntary movement and balance.

Limbic System

Neural system involved in emotions, memory, and drives.

Amygdala

Part of the limbic system involved in emotion, especially fear and aggression.

Hypothalamus

Brain region that regulates hunger, thirst, body temperature, and the endocrine system.

Hippocampus

Brain structure important for forming new memories.

cerebral cortex

The outer layer of the brain responsible for higher-level thinking and processing.

Frontal Lobes

Brain areas involved in speaking, planning, and judgment.

parietal lobes

Brain areas that process sensory information like touch and spatial awareness.

occipital lobe

Brain areas responsible for visual processing.

temporal lobes

Brain areas involved in hearing and memory.

motor cortex

Region of the frontal lobe that controls voluntary movements.

Somatosensory Cortex

Region of the parietal lobe that processes body touch and movement sensations.

association areas

Regions of the cortex involved in integrating information and higher mental functions.

Neurogenesis

The formation of new neurons in the brain.

corpus callosum

The thick band of nerve fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres.

Roger Sperry

Neuroscientist who studied split-brain patients, showing hemispheric specialization.

Michael Gazzaniga

Psychologist known for research on split-brain functions and hemispheric specialization.

Split Brain

A condition resulting from severing the corpus callosum to reduce seizures, affecting communication between hemispheres.

Consciousness

our awareness of ourselves and our environment

Cognitive Neuroscience

The study of brain activity linked with cognition (thinking, memory, language).

dual processing

The idea that information is processed simultaneously on conscious and unconscious tracks.

Blindsight

A condition where people respond to visual stimuli without consciously perceiving them.