AP Psychology Vocabulary Review

A collection of flashcards designed to help students review key vocabulary terms and concepts covered in the AP Psychology course.

Experimental variable

A factor in an experiment that can be manipulated.

Independent variable (IV)

The variable manipulated by the researcher to observe its effect.

Dependent variable (DV)

The variable measured to assess the effect of the independent variable.

Confounding variable

An extraneous factor that may affect the dependent variable.

Random assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance.

Population

The entire group that researchers are interested in studying.

Sample

A subset of the population selected for the study.

Random sampling

A method of selecting participants randomly from the population.

Population

refers to the overall group from which a sample is drawn for research purposes, encompassing all individuals relevant to the study.

Sample

A smaller group that represents the larger population in a study.

Random Sampling

The process of selecting a sample in such a way that every individual in the population has an equal chance of being chosen, thereby minimizing bias.

Representative samples

are samples that accurately reflect the characteristics of the larger population, ensuring that the sample mirrors the diversity of the population.

Convenience samples

are samples that are obtained easily and quickly from a population but may not accurately represent the whole population.

Sampling bias

is the error that occurs when certain members of a population are systematically more likely to be selected for a sample than others, leading to skewed results.

Generalizability

refers to the extent to which findings from a sample can be applied to the larger population. It indicates how well results reflect the broader context.

Experimental Group

is the group of participants in an experiment that receives the treatment or intervention being tested, allowing researchers to measure its effects compared to a control group.

Control Group

is the group of participants in an experiment that does not receive the treatment or intervention, serving as a benchmark to compare against the experimental group.

Placebo Group

is the group of participants that receives a placebo treatment, which is an inactive substance or condition, used to compare against the experimental group and control for psychological effects.

Placebo Affect

Changes caused by participants expectations rather than the treatment itself

Single-blind procedure

Participants don't know whether they're in the experimental or control group

Double-blind procedure

Neither participants nor researchers interacting with them no group assignments

Experimenter bias

Researcher expectations unintentionally influence outcomes

Case study

In-depth examination of a single person or small group

Correlation (does not equal causation)

A relationship between variables that doesn’t prove one causes the other

Positive correlation

Both variables move in opposite directions

Directionality problem

In correlational research, it’s unclear which variable influences the other

Third-variable problem

An unmeasured variable may explain the observed relationship

Scatterplots

Graphs showing the relationship between two variables via plotted points

Correlation coefficient

Numerical index (r, from +1 to -1) indicating strength and direction of a relationship

Quantative measures (e.g., Likert scales)

Numeric ratings capturing the degree of agreement or frequency

Qualitive measures (e.g., structured interviews)

Non-numeric, descriptive Data about experiences or meanings

Surveys

Self-report questionnaires or interviews to gather attitudes or behaviors

Framing

How information is presented influences interpretations and decisions

Social desirability bias

Tendency to answer in ways viewed favorably by others

Self-report bias

Inaccuracies due to memory, misunderstanding, or impression management in self reports

Meta-analysis

Statistical synthesis of results across multiple studies

Naturalistic observation

observing behavior in real-word settings without interference

Hypothesis

A testable prediction about relationships between variables

Falsifibility

A claim must be structured so it can be proven wrong by evidence

Operational definitions

precise descriptions of variables in measurebale terms

Replication and Peer review

Repeating studies to confirm findings; expert evaluation before publication

Ethical guidelines

Principals protecting participants’ rights and welfare in research

Institutional review board (for human and non-human research)

Committee that reviews human research for ethics; animal research is typically overseen by IACUC

Informed assent

Agreement from minors or those unable to consent alongside guardian consent

Protection from harm

safeguards to avoid physical or psychological injury

Confidentiality or participants

Data is kept private and identities protected

Minimal Deception

Only essential non-harmful deception allowed and must be explained afterward

Confederates

People who secretly assist the experimenter to create controlled social interactions

Debriefing

full explanation of the study and any deception after participation

Central tendency (mean, median, mode)

measures describing the center of a distribution

mean

the average of data

median

middle number in data

mode

most frequent value

Measures of variation (range and interpret standard deviation)

Range shows spread; SD shows average distance from the mean

Range

biggest number — smallest number = range

Standard deviation

Normal curve (percentages and percentiles)

Bell-shaped distribution; about 68% withing SD, 95% withing 2, 99.7% within 3; percentiles rank relative position

Positive and Negative Skews

Asymmetrical distributions with tails to the right (positive) or left (negative)

Bimodal distributions

Distributions w/ two distinct peaks

Regression Toward the mean

Extreme scores end to move closer to average on retesting

Statistical significance

Results unlikely due to chance (typically p < 0.05)

Effect sizes

Magnitude of a relationship of difference (independent of sample size)

Cognitive biases

a systematic error in thinking or judgment that affects the decisions and interpretations people make.

Confirmation bias

Seeking confirming evidence

Hindsight bias

“knew-it-all-along”

Overconfidence

overestimating accuracy

Nature and nuture

interaction of genetic factors and environment in behavior and development

Genetic predisposition

increased likelihood of a trait due to inherited factors

Evolutionary perspective

Behavior and mental processes shaped by adaptation and natural selection

Eugenics

"improving" the human species by selectively encouraging or preventing reproduction based on perceived desirable or undesirable inherited traits.

Twin studies

Compare identical vs. fraternal twins to estimate genetic vs environmental influences

Central nervous system

• the body's main processing center, consisting of the brain and spinal cord

• responsible for receiving, processing, and coordinating all sensory information and body functions like thinking, moving, feeling, and regulating automatic processes

Brain

an organ of soft nervous tissue contained in the skull of vertebrates, functioning as the coordinating center of sensation and intellectual and nervous activity.

Spinal cord

the conduit between the brain and the rest of the body, sending motor commands from the motor cortex to the muscles and sensory information from the afferent fibers to the sensory cortex

peripheral nervous system

nerves outside the CNS connecting it to the body

somatic nervous system

voluntary control of skeletal muscles

autonomic nervouse system

involuntary control of glands and internal organs

Sympathetic vs. Parasympathetic nervous system

• Arousal (fight/flight) - Sym

• Calming ("rest/digest) - Para

Glial cell

support cells that nourish, insulate, and protect neurons

Neurons

Nerve cells that transmit info. via electrical and chemical signals

Reflex arc

Automatic response pathway from sensory input to motor output via the spinal cord

Sensory neurons

carry info. from receptors to the CNS

Motor neurons

Carry commands from the CNS to muscles and glands

Interneurons

Connect neurons within the CNS; integrate information

Neural transmission

Communication via electoral impulses and neurotransmitters across synapses

All-or-nothing principle

Neurons fire fully or not at all once threshold is reached

Action potential

brief electrical impulse traveling down the axon

depolarization

Inside of neuron becomes less negative during action potential

Refractory period

time after firing when a neuron can’t fire again immediately

Resting potential

Baseline charge difference across the neuronal membrane

re uptake

neurotransmitters are reabsorbed into the presynaptic neuron

firing threshold

level of stimulation needed to trigger an action potential

Multiple sclerosis

Autoimmune demyelinating disease that slows/disrupts neutral transmission

Myasthenia gravis

autoimmune disorder impairing acetylcholine receptors at the neuromuscular junction, cussing muscle weakness

neurotransmitters

excitatory or inhibitory chemical messengers that increase or decrease likelihood of neuronal firing

Dopamine

Involved in movement, reward, motivation

• Too much: Schizophrenia

• Too little: Parkinson’s disease

Serotonin

Mood, sleep, appetite

• Too little: Depression

Norephinephrine

Arousal, attention, stress responses

• Too little: Depressed mood

Glutamate

Primary expiatory neurotransmitter, learning and memory

• Too much: migraine or seizures

GABA

Primary inhibitory neurotransmitter, calming, and reduces neuronal excitability

• Too little: seizures, insomnia, and tremors