Final Exam

the four mechanisms of communications between cells

1. **gap junctions:** pores for signaling molecules, nutrients, and eelctroclytes to move from cell to cell
2. **neurotransmitters**: from neurons and travel across synaptic clefts
3. **paracrines**: secreted into tissue fluid to affect nearby cells
4. **hormones**: chemical messengers that travel trough blood stream

endocrine system

glands, tissues and cells that secrete hormones

endocrinology

the study of this system and the diagnosis and treatment of it

endocrine glands

organs that are traditional sources of hormones

hormones

chemical messengers that are transported by bloodstream to stimulate physiological responses

exocrine glands

secrete things onto a surface of something through **ducts**

* “external secretions”

endocrine glands

dense, fenestrated capillary networks allow uptake of hormones into blood stream

* “internal secretions”

what cell defys gland classification?

liver cells

* release hormones; release bile into ducts; release albumin into blood

comparison of the systems that serve for internal communication:

Nervous

* reacts/stops quickly as response (milliseconds)
* response declines/adapts quickly to longterm stimuli
* targets one organ at a time

Endocrine

* reacts/stops slowly as response (may take up to days)
* responses is persistent/adapts slowly to longterm stimuli
* general, widespread effects to many organs

what are the organs or cells that have receptors for a hormone and can respond to it?

target organs or cells

where is the hypothalamus?

below the thalamus and above pituitary gland

what is the pituitary gland suspended from the hypothalamus by a stalk called?

infundibulum

* housed in the sella turcica of sphenoid bone

infundibulum in composed by 2 strucutures:

1. adenohypophysis (anterior pituitary) - bigger
2. neurohypophysis (posterior pituitary) - smaller

what attaches the adenohypophysis to the hypothalamus?

hypophyseal portal system

what is the target for the hypothalamus?

pituitary gland

6 hypothalamic hormones:

1. gonadotropin-releasing hormone


2. thyrotropin-releasing hormone
3. corticotropin-releasing hormone
4. prolactin-inhibiting hormone
5. growth hormone-releasing hormone
6. somatosatin

6 anterior pituitary hormones:

1. follicle-stimulating hormone
2. lutenizing hormone
3. thyroid-stimulating hormone
4. adrenocorticotropic hormone
5. prolactin
6. growth hormone

\*what attaches the neurohypophysis to the hypothalamus?

hypothalamo-hypophyseal tract

the follicle stimulating hormone affects what?

egg and sperm development

the lutenizing hormone effects what?

\-helps the egg tp be released

\-helps the production of testosterone

what does the thyroid-stimulating hormone do?

stimulates secretion of thyroid hormone

what does adrenocorticotropic hormone do?

stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids

what does prolactin do?

stimulates mammary glands to synthesize milk

what does growth hormone do?

stimulates mitosis

what does oxytocin do?

* promote sexual satisfaction and emotional bonding between partners
* stimulate labor contractions
* stimulate flow of milk during lactation

what increases water retention, thus reducing urine volume, and preventing dehydration?

ADH

What is the increases target organ hormone levels that inhibit release of hypothalamic and/or pituitary hormones?

negative feedback

* thyroid hormone inhibiting the release of TRH by hypothalamus and of TSH by anterior pituitary

what kind of feedback is the stretching of the uterus increasing OC release, causing contractions, which causes more stretching of the uterus, and so on til delivery?

positive feedback

what hormone has the most widespread effect on the body tissues?

growth hormone

what induces the liver to produce growth stimulants?

insulin (like growth factor)

protein synthesis increases

lipid metabolism increases

carbohydrate metabolism: glucose-sparing effect

electrolyte balance

when is GH secreted?

* first 2 hours of sleep
* peak in response to vigorous exercise

what undergoes involution after age 7 and synthesizes melatonin?

pineal gland

what hormones does the thymus secrete?

thymopoietin

thymosin

thymulin

thymulin

stimulate development of other lymphatic organs and activate T lymphocytes

what is the largest gland that is purely endocrine?

thyroid gland

what are simple cuboidal epithelium that lines follicles?

follicular cells

What does tetraiodothyronine and triiodothyronine do (thyroid hormone)?

1. Increases metabolic rate
2. Increases heat production -> calorigenic effect
3. Increases appetite
4. Increases growth hormone secretion
5. Increases alertness

what secretes calcitonin?

parafollicular cells

when do you secrete parathyroid hormone?

when you have low calcium levels

what is hypothyroidism?

too little thyroid hormone

what is hyperthyroidism?

too much thyroid hormone

what does someone have if they form a goiter?

an iodine insufficiency

what consists of modified sympathetic preganglionic neurons called?

chromaffin cells (when stimulated, releases catecholamines)

what effects do catecholamines have?

1. Increase alertness
2. Mobilize high energy fuels, lactate, fatty acids and glucose
3. Glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis by liver boost glucose levels
4. Glucose sparing effect
5. Increases blood pressure, heart rate, blood flow to muscles, metabolic rate
6. Decreases digestion and urine production

what are the 3 layers of granular tissue?

zona glomerulosa

* secretes mineralocorticoids

zona fasciulata

* secretes glucocorticoids and androgens

sona reticularis

* secrete glucocorticoids and sex steroids

what is the prenatal male development hormone?

androgens

what hormone is important after menopause for sustaining adult bone mass?

estradiol

what is released in between meals when blood glucose concentration is falling?

glucagon

* released by alpha cells
* stimulates fat metabolism

what is secreted during and after meals when glucose and amino acid blood levels are rising?

insulin

* released by beta cells
* helps lower blood glucose levels

what are the 3 ovarian hormones?

estradiol

progesterone

inhibin

what are the 4 testicular hormones

testosterone

weaker androgens

estrogen

inhibin

what is it called when the egg is surrounded by granulosa cells and a capsule?

follicle

after ovulation, the remains of the follicle becomes _____________

corpus luteum

what are the functions of estradiol and progesterone?

1. Development of female reproductive system and physique
2. Regulate menstrual cycle and sustain pregnancy
3. Prepare mammary glands of lactation

what is the target for FSH

seminiferous tubules

what is the inadequate hormone release?

hyposecretion

* diebetes insipidus
* chronic polyuria
* dwarfismwhat

what are two disorders of hypersecretion of growth hormone (GH)?

acromegaly

* thickening of bones and soft tissue in adults

gigantism

* before hitting puberty

what causes hypoparathyroidism?

surgical excision during thyroid surgery

* fatal tetany and then a rapid decline in blood Ca+ level

what causs hyperparathyroidism?

parathyroid tumor

* causes bones to become soft, fragile and deformed

diabetes mellitus:

disruption of metabolism due to hyposecretion or inaction of insulin

primary male sex organ

testes

secondary male sex organs:

everything else besides teste that aids in reproduction

what are the external male genitalia?

located in the perineum (externally visible)

what are the internal male genitalia?

located in the pelvic cavity

* except testes and some ducts in the scrotum

what are secondary male sec characteristics that develop during puberty?

facial hair, coarse and visible hair on torso and limbs, relative muscular physique, change in voice

what is the process from which sperm is produced to secretion?

1. Seminiferous tubules
2. Epididymis
3. Ductus deferens
4. Ejaculatory duct
5. Prostatic urethra
6. Membranous urethra
7. Spongy urethra
8. Glans penis
9. External urethral orifice

what 3 things aid in temp. regulation of testes?

cremaster muscle

dartos muscle

pampiniform plexus

what cells produce testosterone?

interstitial cells

what 2 cells are within the seminiferous tubules?

sestentacular cells

germ cells

what forms the blood-testes barrier?

tight junction between sustentacular cells

what is a network on the posterior side of the testes that collects sperm from seminiferous tubules?

rete testes

where is sperm stored and matured at?

the epididymis

what forms 60% of semen and empties into the ejaculatory ducts

seminal vesicles

what forms the thin milky secretion of 30% of semen?

prostate gland

what does not produce semen but produces the “pre-cum”

bulbourethral glands

what is a noncancerous enlargment of the prostate?

benign prostatic hyperplasia

how do you know if you have prostate cancer?

* firm
* goes unnoticed until it causes pain
* can get checked at DRE

what part of the penis is circumcised?

prepuce

what happens when a male is sexually aroused?

1. The erectile tissue fills with blood


1. Corpus spongiosum
2. The 2 corpora cavernosa (these have the deep artery)

when do boys usually start puberty?

10-12 years

What happens?


1. Growth of sex organs
2. Testosterone stimulates generalized body growth
3. Increase in appetite
4. More pubic hair, axillary hair, and facial hair
5. Stimulates sperm production and libido (sex drive)

hormone relationships in male reproduction:

1. GnRH stimulates secretion of FSH and LH


1. FSH stimulates sustentacular cells to secrete androgen- binding protein (ABP)


1. (ABP) present causes testosterone to stimulate spermatogenesis
2. LH stimulates interstitial cells to secrete testosterone
2. Testosterone stimulates libido and development of secondary sex organs and characteristics


1. Has a negative feedback of GnRH
3. Sustentacular cells secrete inhibin


1. Inhibits FSH secretions and thus reduces sperm production without reducing testosterone secretion

what is spermiogensis?

changes that transforms spermatids into spermatozoa

what is the part of the spermatozoon where there is an enzyme cap over the apical half of the nucleus that contains enzymes that penetrate the egg?

acrosome

what part of the spermatozoon contains mitochondria around the axoneme of the flagella and produces ATP for flagellar movement?

midpiece

what makes up semen?

1. 60% seminal vesicle fluid


1. Viscous yellowish fluid
2. Contains fructose and other carbohydrates
2. 30% prostatic fluid


1. Thin, milky white fluid
2. Clotting enzyme
3. Serine protease
3. 10% sperm and spermatic duct secretions

what is the clotting enzyme from prostate activates proseminogelin that is converted to a stickly fibrin-like protein?

seminogelin (allows it to stick to wall of vagina)

what are the internal female genitalia?

ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina

what are the external female genitalia?

clit, labia minora, labia majora

what is the primary female sex organ?

ovaries

what is the secondary female sex organ?

everything but ovaries

process of the ovarian follicle:

1. Primordial follicle
2. Primary follicle
3. Secondary follicle
4. Tertiary follicle
5. Mature follicle
6. Ovulated oocyte (corpus hemo..)
7. Corpus luteum
8. Corpus albicans

4 parts of the fallopian tube:

1. Fimbriae
2. Infundibulum
3. Ampulla
4. Isthmus

3 parts of the uterine wall:

1. Perimetrium


1. External serosa layer
2. Myometrium


1. Middle muscular layer
3. Endometrium


1. Functional layer - this one sheds each period!
2. Basal layer - regenerate cells

what is the mound of fat over the oubic symphysis?

mons pubis

what is the pair of thick folds of skin and adipose tissue to the mons?

labia majora

what are the thin, hairless folds that contain urethral and vagina openings in between each fold?

labia minora

2 regions of the breasts:

1. Body -> contains the nipple
2. Axillary tail -> extension toward armpit

what is the circular colored zone around the nipple called?

areola

* darkens when you have a child

what is a nonlactating breast made up of?

adipose and collagenous tissue

3 steps of female puberty:

1. Thelarche


1. Onset breast development
2. Pubarche


1. Appearance of pubic and axillary hair, sebaceous glands, and axillary glands
3. Menarche


1. First menstrual period