section A

Characteristics of an acute injury

• sudden/immediate

• Severe pain

• Restricted movement

• Swelling

• Unable to bear weight

Four types of acute injury

• fractures

• Dislocations

• Strains

• Sprains

Fractures

• break or crack in the bone

• Compound (open) or simple (closed)

• Spiral - winding

• Longitudinal - breaks along length

• Buckle - in children - doesn’t break

• Hairline - partial

• Transverse - horizontal

• Oblique - angled

Dislocations - symptoms & treatment

• occur at joints

• Due to contact or a fall

• Swollen, painful, visibly out of place

• Treatment - manipulation to reposition bone

Strains

• a pulled muscle due to muscle fibres being stretched too far - they tear

• Constant acceleration or deceleration

• Caused by overuse of muscle groups

Sprain

• occur to ligaments

• Ligaments are stretched too far

Examples of chronic injuries

• Achilles tendonitis

• Stress fractures

• Tennis elbow (lateral epicondylitis)

Symptoms of chronic injury

• dull ache when resting and swelling

• Causes pain and inflammation

Achilles tendinitis - cause and preventing

• overuse injury causing pain and inflammation At back of ankle

• Connects gastrocnemius and calcaneus

• Prevention - suitable trainers, massage and stretching

Stress fracture

• overuse injury

• Often most common in weight bearing bones

• Bought about by sudden increase in intensity or amount of exercise

• As muscle fatigues, can’t absorb shock of exercise so fatigued muscle passes stress load to the bone and causes it to crack

Lateral epicondylitis (tennis elbow)

• caused by an inflammation in the wrist extensor muscles that attaches to the lateral epicondyle

• Overuse injury that occurs use to inflammation in wrist extensor muscles

• Muscle that causes extension of the wrist and muscles become sore and tender

• Most common in golf and tennis players

Injury prevention methods

• protective equipment

• Screening

• Warm ups

• Flexibility training

• Taping and bracing

newton's first law

law of inertia - the resistance an object has to change its state of motion

the bigger the mass, the larger the inertia so more force is needed to change its state of motion

newtons 2nd law

law of acceleration - the rate of acceleration is proportional to the force causing it and the change that takes place is in the direction the force acts in

force = mass x acceleration

newtons 3rd law

the law of action/ reaction - to every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction (ground force reaction) 

1st class levers

• fulcrum in middle

• effort arrow going down

• movement of head and neck, extension at the elbow

• resistance arm longer than effort arm

• large range of movement, resistance can be moved quickly

• hard to overcome a heavy load

• cannot apply much force

2nd class lever

• load in the middle

• effort arm going up

• plantar flexion of the ankle

• effort arm longer than resistance arm

• generates a much larger force

• overcome heavy loads

• slow

• limited range of movement

3rd class lever

• effort in the middle

• effort arm going up

• anything other than head, extension of elbow and planter flexion

• resistance arm longer than effort arm

• large range of movement 

• move quickly 

• hard to overcome a heavy load

distance/ time graphs

• the faster the speed, the steeper the line

• when line in horizontal, performer is stationary

• when performer turns around and comes back to start, the line changes direction, moving down towards zero

moment of force - angular motion

• angular motion occurs as a result of torque

• torque is the turning force

what is torque dependent on

• the size of the force - the greater the force, the greater the torque 

• application of the force further from axis will increase torque 

calculation for torque

torque = force (N) x perpendicular distance from fulcrum

when does angular motion occur

when a force is applied outside the centre of mass - causes angular rotation as a result of an eccentric force

newtons 1st law - angular motion

• inertia - the resistance an object has to change its state of angular motion

• an eccentric force is required to change the state of angular motion (outside centre of mass)

newtons 2nd law - angular motion

• angular acceleration - the rate of angular acceleration is proportional to the eccentric force causing it and the change that takes place is in direction of which the turning force acts 

• magnitude and direction of torque determines magnitude and direction of angular acceleration

newtons 3rd law - angular motion

• equal and opposite reaction - to every eccentric action there is an equal and opposite eccentric reaction

what is angular displacement

• the smallest change in angle between starting and finishing point

• measured in degrees or radians

• 1 radian = 57 degrees

what is angular velocity

• the rotational speed of an object and the axis about which the object is rotating

• a vector quantity - has direction as it refers to angular displacement covered in a certain time

• angular velocity = angular displacement/ time taken

• measured in rad/s

what is angular acceleration

• the rate of change of angular velocity 

• angular acceleration = change in angular velocity/ time taken

• measured in rad/s2

what does the moment of inertia of angular momentum acting on a lever depend on?

• mass of the object

• how the mass is distributed from point of rotation

• the greater the mass of the object, the greater the resistance to change therefore the greater the moment of inertia

how does distribution of mass from axis of rotation change angular momentum

• increasing distance of distribution of mass from axis of rotation will increase moment of inertia

• the closer the mass to the axis of rotation, the smaller the inertia

how do you calculate angular momentum 

angular velocity x moment of inertia 

what factors affect flight paths of an object

• weight

• air resistance

shot put flight paths

• do not consider air resistance

• gravity will always stay constant

• true parabola

shuttlecock flight path 

• is affected by air resistance 

• forms distorted parabola 

• air resistance increases as shuttlecock spends longer in the air

3 factors that affect horizontal displacement

• angle of release

• height of release

• velocity of release

angle of release

• when landing height and release height are the same, optimum release is 45 degrees

• when landing height is higher than release height, optimum angle of release is greater than 45 degrees

• when release height is higher than landing height, angle of release should be less than 45 degrees

• shot put optimum is between 26-38

velocity of release 

• increase in velocity will increase the horizontal displacement 

height of release

• increase in release height will increase horizontal displacement

what is bernouills principle 

an increase in the speed of a fluid occurs as a result of a decrease in pressure

discuss example - bernouill’s principle

• airfoil shape - creates upwards lift

• air travels further over the top - creating high velocity, so low pressure

• air has less distance to travel underneath, so air moves at low velocity and therefore high pressure - greater horizontal displacement

downward lift - air spoiler/ cycling helmet - bernouillis principle

• angle of spoiler - air travelling over top has shorter distance, low velocity, high pressure

• air travelling underneath has larger distance, high velocity, low pressure

• pressure gradient creates downwards lift

what are simple carbs 

easily digested, processed food, high GI

what are complex carbs

• longer to digest, usually plant based, low GI

what is the glycemic index

• release rate of different carbohydratesc

characteristics of high GI foods

• raise blood glucose levels quickly 

• short raise in glucose levels 

• after time, glucose levels falls below starting point - more fatigued 

• short term 

• eat 1-2 hours before exercise 

characteristics of low GI foods

• raise blood glucose levels slowly

• glucose levels gently fall back to starting point

• slow, sustained release of glucose

• long term

• eat 3-4 hours before exercise

proteins uses

• growth and repair 

• make enzymes 

• make hormones

• make haemoglobin 

• minor energy source

risk factors of too much saturated fats

• weight gain

• poor stamina

• coronary heart disease

• high blood pressure

why are unsaturated fats good

• carry/ transport vitamins (A,D,E,K)

cholesterol

• made in liver and carrier in blood

• LDL - leave fatty deposits in arteries and cause poor blood flow 

• HDL - take cholesterol away from parts pf body where it has accumilated

• takes it to liver to be disposed of

trans fats

• added hydrogen to give longer shelf life

• causes high levels of LDL

What is streamlining

Shaping the body so it can move quickly through s fluid, gradual taper towards back of object

Being more streamlined encourages laminar flow

Less streamlined - encourages turbulent flow

What are 3 factors affecting drag

• velocity of a moving body

• Cross sectional ares of a moving body

• Shape/surface of a moving body

Drag

• Slows a performer down

• Acts in opposite direction to movement

• Th greater the cross sectional area, the greater the drag

Two different types of drag

• surface drag

• Form drag

Surface drag

• friction between a boundary layer of fluid and surface of an object

• A smoother surface reduces friction

• A smaller surface reduced friction

Water soluble vitamins

B

C

Fat soluble vitamins

D

A

K

E

Where are fat soluble vitamins stored

In the liver and fatty tissue

Screening

• way to identity those at risk of complications

• Prepares performers for their sport and enhances performance

• Reduces injuries and save lives

What does CRY stand for

• cardiac risk in the young - form of heart screening

• Uses an ECG to monitor performers heart

What might a screen assess

• muscle imbalances

• Core strength

• Range of movement

• Postural alignment

• Mobility

4 purposes of screening

• can identify past/ current or future injuries

• Can identify muscle imbalances

• Identify performers risk of complications from exercise (cardiac risk)

• Can identify a suitable rehabilitation programme

How is screening beneficial

• A conditioner can select a specific training programme for improvements

• Reducing risk of injury

• Enhancing performance

Disadvantages of screening

• some are not 100% accurate

• Problems can be missed (false negative)

• Identify problem that doesn’t exist (false positive)

• Creates anxiety (health problems)

Warm ups

• increases elasticity of muscle tissue

• Increases heart rate and breathing rate

• Increase oxygen and nutrient delivery to skeletal muscles

• Increases muscle temperature

3 stages of a warm up

• cardiovascular exercise

• Stretching/flexibility

• Movement patterns

Cardiovascular exercise

• before the start of every training session, prepares the body

• Increases heart rate and cardiac output

• Increases vascular shunt which will direct more blood to working muscles

• Increase oxygen transportation

Stretching

• static stretching (active or passive)

• Ballistic stretching (involves swinging movements)

Movement patterns

• dribbling round cones, overload scenarios, shooting drills

• Enables rehearsal

Flexibility training

• active stretching involves performer working on one joint, pushing it beyond its point of resistance, lengthening muscles.

• Passive stretching - stretch occurs with help of external forces

• Static stretching - muscle is held stationary position for 30 seconds or more

• Ballistic stretching involves- involves stretch with swinging/bouncing movements. Push limbs beyond limits of natural ROM. High injury risk - only suitable for flexibility individuals.

Taping

• Taping provides support/ stabilises joints and aids recovery

• Can use kinesiology tape to tape muscles by applying it to the skin, expands as the muscle contracts to prevent a decrease in range of motion

How is bracing beneficial

• more substantial than taping, involves hinged support

• Gives extra stability to muscles/joints

Where are vitamin A found

• milk

• Fish

• Eggs

• Cheese

• Plant based foods - carrots

Where s vitamin K found

• green leafy vegetables

• Spinach

• Cabbage

• Broccoli

Vitamin D - where is it made and when

• Made by our body under the skin when exposed to sunlight

What exercise related functions does vitamin D help with

• helps to absorb calcium

• Maintains bones and teeth

Why does vitamin D helping to absorb calcium become beneficial?

• performer is less likely to suffer from stress fractures caused by overuse

• Bones are less likely to break from impact within contact sports

Water soluble vitamins - storage and dosage

• not stored

• Need to be taken daily

• Any excess will not be beneficial and will be excreted.

4 types of vitamin B

• B1 - break down and release energy from food

• B2 - break down and release energy from food

• B6 - helps form red blood cells and haemoglobin

• B12 - helps form red blood cells and maintains nervous system

Where is vitamin C found and what are the exercise related functions

• aka ascorbic acid

• Found within many fruits and vegetables - citrus fruits

• Protects cells and keeps them healthy

• Maintains bones, teeth, gums and ligaments

Minerals and their functions

• assist bodily functions

• They are dissolved by body as irons (electrolytes)

• Facilitate transmission of nerve impulses

• Enable effective muscle contractions

• Source - meet, fish, eggs, dairy, fruit and vegetables

Calcium

• important for strong bones and teeth

• Efficient nerve and muscle functions

Sodium

• regulate fluid levels (hydration)

• To much can cause high blood pressure

• Increased risk of stroke or heart attack

Iron functions

• forms haemoglobin in red blood cells

• Helps transport oxygen

• Lack of iron = anaemia

Function of fibre

• slows down time it takes the body to break down food. Provides a slower, more sustained release of energy

• Helps to prevent constipation and assists digestion

Where is fibre found

• whole meal breads/pasta

• Nuts

• Seeds

How do fibre and cholesterol link?

• fibre fights disease

• A diet high in fibre can help to prevent colon cancer and heart disease

• High fibre helps the body to eliminate cholesterol (LDLs) by binding it in the digestive tract

Water

• 60% of a persons body weight

• Essential for good health

• Main component of cells

What does water transport

• nutrients

• Hormones

• Waste products

What does water help to regulate

• body temperature

• Maintain hydration

Water and exercise

• muscles contract when exercising, energy is generated by breaking ATP bonds, heat is released as a by product.

• Consuming water prevents us from overheating during this process

• Body begins to cool itself via evaporation - performer sweats and so water is lost during this process, if water is not replenished, dehydration will occur.

Effects of dehydration

• headaches and muscle fatigue

• Increased heart rate = lower cardiac output

• Reduction in transportation of oxygen and nutrients

• Reduction in exchange of waste products

• Increases reaction time and decision making

• Reduced sweating to prevent water loss - get hotter

• ‘Blood viscosity will increase

• Reduced blood flow

• Cramps/ los of electrolytes

How do performers rehydrate

• sports drinks - boosts glycogen levels before competition

• Water to rehydrate during competition

• For every 1kg of body weight lost, 1.5L of fluid is needed

Use of creatine monohydrate

• increases amount of phosphocreatine stores in the muscles - used to fuel ATP - PC system to give us energy for up to 10 seconds

• Increasing creatine will allow ATP - PC system to work for longer and also decreases recovery time

• Used by - sprinters, jumpers, throwers

• allowing for exercise at higher intensities and quicker recoveries

Positives of creatine monhydrate

• replenishes PC stores

• Provides ATP

• Allows ATP - PC to work for longer

• Improves muscle mass

• Decreases recovery time

Negatives of creatine monohydrate

• dehydration

• Liver damage

• Muscle cramps

• Vomiting

• Hinders aerobic performance

Uses of sodium bicarbonate

• antacid - neutralises acidity in stomach

• Increases buffering capacity of blood, neutralises negative effects of lactic acid

• By reducing acidity in muscle cells it delays fatigue and allows performer to maintain high intensity for longer

• Mainly used for athletes who engage the anaerobic glycolytic system

• Maintains pH level of blood

Positives of sodium bicarbonate

• reduces acidity in muscle cells

• Delays fatigue

• Increased buffering capacity of blood

• Neutralises effect of lactic acid