hst of science exam 2

Galileo Galilei

Italian astronomer whose telescope observations supported heliocentrism and challenged traditional Aristotelian cosmology.

René Descartes

French philosopher and mathematician who emphasized mathematical reasoning and mechanistic explanations of nature.

The "Miracle" at Magdeburg

Event during the Thirty Years’ War where the city’s destruction was framed as divine intervention, reflecting religious interpretations of natural events.

The Galileo Affair

Conflict between Galileo and the Catholic Church over heliocentrism, illustrating tensions between new science and religious authority.

Copernicanism and the Bible

Debate over whether heliocentrism contradicted Scripture, prompting reinterpretation of biblical cosmology.

1616 Decree against Copernicanism

Church declaration labeling heliocentrism as “formally heretical” and banning its teaching.

'Warfare Thesis' for science and religion

The later 19th-century idea that science and religion have been in constant conflict throughout history.

17th century instruments and experimentation

Use of tools like the telescope, microscope, air pump, and barometer to produce empirical knowledge and reshape scientific method.

Isaac Newton

English scientist who formulated universal gravitation, laws of motion, and helped develop calculus.

Isaac Newton's Principles of Natural Philosophy

Newton’s 1687 work (Principia) establishing mathematical physics and mechanistic explanations of the universe.

The Enlightenment

Intellectual movement emphasizing reason, skepticism, and the improvement of society through knowledge.

The Enlightenment and early modern wars

Conflicts like the Thirty Years’ War prompted desires for rational order, influencing Enlightenment thinking.

The Encyclopedia movement

18th-century project (led by Diderot and d’Alembert) aiming to compile and democratize human knowledge.

The Enlightenment's impact on science

Promoted empirical method, secular reasoning, classification, and the belief that science could improve society.

The Enlightenment and scientific societies

Expansion of academies and societies that institutionalized research and encouraged scientific collaboration.

18th c. changes in natural history

Shift toward systematic classification, global specimen collection, and standardization of species categories.

From alchemy to chemistry (reasons for)

Transition driven by emphasis on quantification, controlled experiments, and rejection of mystical explanations.

Lavoisier's impact on chemistry

Introduced modern chemical nomenclature, conservation of mass, and oxygen-based theories of combustion.

Laplace's impact on Newton's physics

Extended Newtonian mechanics using mathematical determinism; proposed a clockwork universe without divine intervention.

John Harris's Astronomical Dialogues between a Gentleman and a Lady

Work presenting astronomy in accessible dialogue, reflecting Enlightenment goals of public education.

Joseph Priestley’s The History and Present State of Electricity

Historical and experimental survey showing Enlightenment faith in progress and cumulative knowledge.

Carl Linnaeus’s The Animal Kingdom (Zoological System)

Classification system organizing animals by observable traits, foundational to modern taxonomy.

The impact of the French Revolution on 19th c. science

Reorganized education and research, expanded state-supported science, and promoted secular scientific institutions.

19th century and science: rationalization of society

Shift toward bureaucratic, standardized, and scientifically managed systems in government and industry.

19th century and science: professionalization of science

Science became a full-time career with training, credentials, and formal roles in universities and institutions.

Measurement and the 19th century

Explosion of standardized metrics, precision instruments, and quantification in scientific and social studies.

Positivism

Auguste Comte’s philosophy that true knowledge comes only from scientific observation and empirical data.

Hospitals' impact on 19th c. science

Clinical hospitals became research sites where systematic medical observation and data collection advanced medicine.

19th c. Colonialism/imperialism and science

Empires used science for mapping, resource extraction, racial classification, and global data collection.

19th c. observatories and science

Observatories supported global timekeeping, navigation, and astronomical research tied to state and military needs.

Women in science (premodern to 19th c.)

Women moved from informal household-based participation to increasing visibility in laboratories, astronomy, and education.

Universities and 19th c. science

Universities became centers for research, professional training, and laboratory science, especially in Germany.

19th c. physiology and science

Study of bodily functions using experiments, instruments, and laboratory measurement; rise of experimental medicine.

19th c. statistics and science

Statistical methods applied to population studies, public health, and social science; rise of probability as a scientific tool.

19th c. laboratories and science

Labs became central places for controlled experiments, training scientists, and producing reproducible results.

19th c. conferences and scientific societies

International meetings and organizations standardized methods and connected global scientific communities.

Thomas Huxley "On the Educational Value of the Natural History Sciences"

Huxley argued natural history teaches critical thinking, observation, and scientific literacy essential for modern education.