Phonetics Midterm

Multiple spellings and letter combinations like "c", "sc", and "ss" are all different \________ of the phoneme /s/.

allographs

Difference between a phoneme and an allophone

Phonemes are the smallest units of speech sound that can change the meaning of a word, while allophones are variations of sound that do not affect meaning.

How many morphemes are present in the word "swimmers"?

3

A research lab is interested in documenting phonetic skills in people who have had left hemisphere strokes. They use x-ray and MRI technology to examine the precise muscle movements in the jaw, tongue, and lips of several stroke patients. What branch(es) of phonetics are most closely associated with this project?

Articulatory Phonetics

How many phonemes are there in the word "exam"?

5

Difference between phonetics and phonology

Phonology is concerned with the structure and pattern of sound within a particular language, while phonetics can study sounds without reference to the language in which they occur.

Difference between bound and free morphemes.

Free morphemes can occur on their own (for instance, "run"). Bound morphemes must be connected to a free morpheme (for instance, "running"). Additionally, bound morphemes include inflectional morphemes that express grammatical features (plurality, tenses) and derivational morphemes which change the word's part of speech.

How many phonemes are there in the word "advance"?

6

A young woman attending college in New York speaks with a northern American English dialect while talking with her roomate, but when she receives a phone call from her grandmother in Virginia, begins speaking with a Southern dialect. This phenomenon would be considered \_____________.

Code Switching

ASHA's policy on dialects

Dialects are variations in language, and therefore should never be considered communication disorders.

What do we mean when we say that dialects are "more than just accents"?

A dialect is a language variety across groups. Additionally, a dialect includes phonological differences (sounds or accents are included in this), semantic differences (meaning), morpho-syntactic differences (grammar), and pragmatic differences (social us). Accents are included in a dialect, but dialects are not just accents.

Difference between a regional dialect and a social dialect.

Regional dialects refer to a dialect belonging to a certain area or location. Social dialects are language varieties spoken by a specific social or demographic group.

At its most basic, Boyle's law tells us that:

Volume and pressure have an inverse relationship- as one increases, the other decreases.

What occurs during inspiration

-The muscles of the scalene triangle contract.
-The diaphragm flattens and contracts downward.
-The intercostal muscles help the rib cage expand.
-The sternocleidomastoid muscle contracts, lifting the sternum.

Which of the following is not a cartilage of the larynx? Thyroid, Arytenoid, Cricoid, Hyoid

Hyoid

Differences between tidal/rest breathing and breathing for speech

-Tidal/rest breathing involves active inspiration and passive exhalation, while speech breathing involves active inspiration as well as active longer exhalation.
-Speech breathing involves "checking action", which slows exhalation. Tidal/rest breathing does not.
-In speech breathing, about 10% of the breath cycle is spent in inspiration, while 90% of the breath cycle is spent in exhalation. In tidal/rest breathing, about 40% of the breath cycle is inspiration while about 60% is exhalation.

Why is Boyle's law important to understanding respiration?

Boyle's law refers to the idea that pressure and volume have an inverse relationship; the larger the volume of a container, the lower the pressure on the contents (and the opposite is true too). During respiration, when one inhales the thoracic cavity becomes larger, therefore, the pressure on the air in the lungs decreases. Once the pressure inside the lungs is lower than the air outside the lungs, outside air will rush in (gases move from higher pressure to lower pressure). The opposite occurs during exhalation.

True or False: The arytenoid carilages provide anchor points for the vocal folds, and help them move to adduct and abduct.

True.

True or False: The thyroid cartilage moves downward to cover the vocal folds and protect them during the swallow.

False.

True or False: The Bernoulli Effect forces the vocal folds open during phonation.

False.

Phonetics

-branch of linguistics that studies speech sounds.
-Articulatory/Physiological, Acoustic, Auditory, Applied/Clinical.
-does not need to be a particular language.

Articulatory Phonetics

how speech sounds are formed (anatomical structures and motions involved in the production of speech sounds).

Acoustic Phonetics

the acoustic properties of sound waves produced by articulation (time, frequency, amplitude).

Auditory Phonetics

how sounds are perceived through the ear (physiological processes involved in the reception of speech).

Clinical Phonetics

-application of phonetics in the clinic (assessment and treatment of articulatory disorders).
-deals with errors or abnormalities in the production of speech sounds.

Phonology

-branch of linguistics that studies the structure and function of sounds within a language, including:
-how the particular sounds used in each language form an integrated system for encoding information.
-how such systems differ from one language to another.
-two languages could have the same inventory of phonetic units, but use this inventory differently to convey meaning.

Phonemes

-smallest unit of sound that can differentiate between meaningful units (words or morphemes) in a language.
-change a phoneme, changes it into another words (or into a meaningless word form). "cat", bat, cut, cap, etc.

Recognizing Phonemes

1.)Phonemes are sounds, not spellings.
2.)Sounds must be produced with the articulators.
3.)Try not to slow down too much.

Allophones

-contextual variants of a phoneme.
-they differ in production and sometimes sound.
-allophones do not have a capability to differentiate the meaning between two items.

Morphology

branch of linguistics that studies morphemes.

Morpheme

-smallest unit of language that carries a semantic interpretation.
-each word in a language consists of one or more morphemes, but an individual morpheme is not necessarily a word. (cats\= cat +s).

lexicon

list of morphemes in a language.

Free morpheme

can occur alone (word stem, lexical morpheme). ex. run, frog, decide, elephant.

bound morpheme

-must be attached to a free morpheme (suffix, prefix, infix) ex. running, indecisive.
-inflectional and derivational.

Inflectional Morphemes

express grammatical features like plurality, verb tense, etc. ex. foxes, opened.

Derivational Morphemes

change the part of speech of a word (verb becomes a noun, adjective becomes an adverb, etc.). ex. swim (verb)+er\= swimmer (noun).

See "phon" think \_____

sound.

See "graph" think \______

writing.

Orthography

system of written symbols used for the writing of a language.

Grapheme

unit in the writing system of a language. English has 26 graphemes.

Allograph

any one letter or combination of letters that represents a particular phoneme. ex. /f/ sound can be spelled: fish, muffin, phonetics, cough.

Language

-a system of symbols that allows people to communicate with one another.
-includes phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics.
-speech is just one way modality we use to transmit language.

Idiolect

-Language use that is typical to an individual.
-reflects overlap and acculturation.

Macroculture

National (or international) cultural traits shared in a general way; crosses local boundaries.

Microculture

patterns of shared behavior and ideas particular to localized regions or particular groups; an individual can identify with many microcultures at once.

Acculturation

Influence of one culture on another.

Dialects

-language varies across groups (regional and social).
-variations are rule-governed and systematic.
-Ex.: In Northern New England, /r/ is only omitted post-vocalically ("cah"), not a pre-vocalic position ("rat").
-not just an accent.
-phonological differences (sounds or accents), semantic differences (meaning), morpho-syntactic differences (grammar), and pragmatic differences (social use).

Social Dialect/Sociolect

-varieties of language spoken by a definable social or demogrpahic group. Prestigious vs. Vernacular speech- 'class'-based dialects.
-Ex. AAE (African American (vernacular) English. Caste Dialects in India and Sri Lanka. High vs. Lower class dialect in Britain.

Foreign Accent/L1 Influenced Speech

-all languages have their own rules for which sounds to use, and how to arrange those sounds.
-rules governing a speaker's native language may intrude on production in English.
-speaker's may produce words in a way that conforms more "naturally" to their native language.
-Ex.: Hmong speaker interchanging "s" with "sh" in Hmong they are the same sound.

Code Switching

-when bilingual or bi-dialectal speakers switch between one dialect or language and another.
-reasons for switching can be topical or situational.
-code switching does not mean that a speaker is "mixed up"; in fact, it implies a high level of competence in both languages.

Respiratory System

-provides power for speech.
-includes: trachea, lungs, thorax, abdomen, and associated muscles.
-provides egressive (outward) airflow for speech.

Muscles of Inspiration

-diaphragm
-external intercostal
-intercartilaginous internal intercostal
-scalene muscles/sternocleidomastoid

Muscles of expiration

-Interosseous internal intercostals
-abdominal muscles

Diaphragm

-dome-shaped muscle that forms the floor of the chest (thoracic) cavity.
-it separates the thoracic space from the abdominal space.

Intercostal Groups

-several groups of muscles that run between the ribs and help to form the walls of the chest cavity.
-they work together to help the ribcage expand and contract during respiration.

Scalene Triangle (both sides of neck)

-3 pairs of muscles.
-anterior, middle, and posterior.
-assist in elevating the upper ribs.

Sternocleidomastoid

-connects the sternum and clavicle to the mastoid process of the skull.
-assists in elevating the sternum.

Boyle's Law

-pressure and volume have an inverse relationship.
-the larger the volume of the container, the lower the pressure on the contents (or vice versa).
-gasses will always move from an area of higher pressure to an area of lower pressure.
-So in respiration: the larger the thoracic cavity gets, the lower the pressure on the air in the lungs. Eventually, there is lower pressure inside the lungs than in the air outside, and outside air will rush in to compensate. The opposite is true when we exhale.

Tidal Breathing

-active inspiration
-passive expiration
-about 40/60 division of time for inhalation/exhalation.

Speech Breathing

-active, deeper inspiration (higher volume).
-active, longer expiration the power speech.
-"Checking action" in the respiratory system maintains an even flow of air through the vocal tract.

Laryngeal System

-source of voicing/phonation.
-musculo-cartilaginous structure located at upper end of trachea.
-valve.
-size varies with age and gender.

Parts of Larynx

-Hyoid Bone.
-Cartilages: Cricoid, Thyroid, Arytenoid, Corniculate, Epiglottis.

Phonation

-during respiration, the vocal folds are held wide apart (abducted) to allow for unrestricted airflow.
-during the production of voiced sound-or phonation- the vocal folds(protection and phonation) are brought together (adducted) so that they can be set into vibration:
~air pressure from the lungs builds up beneath the closed folds.
~the folds are forced apart slightly to allow a small amount of air through.
~elasticity and physical forces pull the folds together again.
~air pressure begins to build again underneath the folds.

Bernoulli Effect

-Increased air flow results in decreased air pressure.
-Forces vocal folds closed.

Vibration of vocal folds\=

vocal tone

Rate of vocal fold vibration\=

-fundamental frequency, the physical correlate of vocal pitch.
-males:F0~125Hz
-females:F0~250Hz
-newborn cry:F0~500Hz
-rate of vibration is related to thickness, length, and elasticity of vocal folds.

Supralaryngeal System

-cavities and articulators that shape each sound.
-pharyngeal, oral, and nasal cavities, and articulators.

Pharyngeal Cavity

-space between the larynx and the oral and nasal cavities.

Oral Cavity

-space between the pharynx and the lips.

Nasal Cavity

-space between the pharynx and the nostrils.

Articulators

-some examples are the velum, jaw, tongue, lips.

Source-Filter Theory

-vibration of the vocal folds produces sound, but the vocal folds vibrate the same for all voiced sounds always yielding the same "buzz".
-parts of the supralaryngeal system can assume different postures and make different articulatory movements, but will often not produce sound.
-so speech, with its variety of sounds, relies on having both a source of sound and a means to shape or filter that sound.

Resonance

-particular frequency within a sound gets amplified, depends on the shape and size of cavity for what gets amplified and what doesn't.
-3 major air cavities (pharyngeal, oral, nasal) are shaped by the positions and movement of the articulators.
-cavities serve to selectively amplify vibrations.
-most qualify and loudness characteristics of human voice are a product of the resonating cavities.
-resonant cavities can be altered in size, configuration and tightness.

Fixed Articulators

-upper incisors (upper front teeth).
-hard palate.
-alveolar ridge.

Mobile Articulators

-Lips
-Mandible (lower jaw)
-Soft palate (velum)
-Tongue
-Pharyngeal cavity (constrictor muscles change shape and position)

Velum (soft palate)

-attached to the posterior of the hard palate.
-opens and closes the entrance to the nasal cavity.
-velopharyngeal port: opening between the oropharynx and the nasal cavity, which can be closed by movements of the velum and lateral and posterior walls of the pharynx to prevent the nasal transmission of sound.
-oral sounds: velum raised.
-nasal sounds: velum lowered (resting position).

Jaw (mandible)

-contributes to movements of the tongue and lower lip.
-temporomandibular joint (TMJ).
~condylar process inserted into the mandibular fossa of the temporal bone.
~allows rotation, horizontal translation, and lateral translation.

Tongue

-connected to the mandible.
-capable of very complicated movements (the most movable articulator).
1.)body- determines position of the tongue (vowel production).
2.)tip- consonant production.
3.)blade- consonant production. "th"
4.)dorsum- consonant production. "g"
5.)root- shapes the pharynx. vowel production.

Lips

-articulatory positions: opened vs closed. rounded vs unrounded. spread vs protruded.
-consonant production: lips create obstruction through bilabial closing gestures and constriction by moving up the lower lip to upper incisors.
-vowel production: the rounded/unrounded and spread/protruded aspects are the most important.

What articulators are used for the first phoneme in "part"

lips, mandible.

What articulators are used for the first phoneme in "seat"

tongue, teeth, mandible.

What articulators are used for the first phoneme in "vest"

lower lip, teeth, mandible.

What articulators are used for the first phoneme in "nice"

tongue, velum (lowered, open nasal cavity), alveolar ridge, and mandible.

What articulators are used for the first phoneme in "eat"

tongue (high and forward), lips (stretched), mandible.