French and Indian War

What started the French and Indian War in 1754?

A skirmish between George Washington and French forces in modern-day Pennsylvania triggered the conflict. This local dispute escalated into a worldwide global conflict.

What is another name for the French and Indian War and why is it confusing?

The Seven Years War, which is confusing because it actually lasted nine years (1754-1763).

How was the French and Indian War different from previous colonial conflicts?

Previous conflicts were indecisive and didn't change much. The French and Indian War changed everything and established Britain as a global empire.

What was the Albany Plan of Union?

A plan to streamline the chaotic colonial war effort by creating a unified colonial government. It failed because individual colonial governments were uneasy about vesting power in a broader colonial authority.

Why were colonists suspicious of the Albany Plan of Union?

They remembered the hated Dominion of New England, which had shut down colonial legislatures including the Massachusetts General Court.

What was Britain's secret weapon in the French and Indian War?

Britain's ability to raise money on credit through a national bank and representative government. This allowed them to spend their way to victory despite having a smaller army and population than France.

Why could Britain borrow money more effectively than France?

Britain had a national bank and Parliament that controlled spending. Investors felt confident they'd be repaid because Parliament could be voted out if it defaulted. French monarchs could simply tear up loan agreements with no consequences.

How did Britain's national debt change during the Seven Years War?

Britain's debt roughly doubled. By the eve of the American Revolution, over half the British budget was spent just paying interest on debt.

What happened at Braddock's Defeat in 1755?

British General Braddock tried to invade Canada but his army was ambushed in woodland, likely in modern-day New York. The British fought in European-style line formations and were massacred. George Washington helped organize the retreat.

Who was William Pitt and why was he important?

William Pitt became Prime Minister after early British defeats. Unlike previous leaders who saw the colonies as a sideshow, Pitt made North American conquest the primary goal. He raised vast sums of money and replaced incompetent generals.

What were the two key French cities in North America?

Quebec and Montreal along the St. Lawrence River. These cities contained most of New France's population and managed the French war effort.

Why was Quebec difficult to capture?

Quebec was well-fortified on an elevation above the St. Lawrence River. French troops could fire down on attackers, making it extremely difficult to storm with 18th-century weapons.

What happened at the Battle of the Plains of Abraham (1759)?

General James Wolfe spotted a pass behind Quebec and moved thousands of British troops there overnight. When the French discovered them in the morning, they hastily assembled but were defeated in minutes. Both Wolfe and French commander Montcalm were killed.

What military lesson did American colonials learn from the war?

That European-style fighting (line formations, bright uniforms) didn't work well in American woodland. They favored irregular warfare, ambushes, and adopting Native American tactics, as practiced by Rogers' Rangers.

What military lesson did the British learn from the war?

That European-style professional soldiers (especially grenadiers with bayonets) ultimately win wars. They viewed colonial militia as unreliable and fussy, unwilling to fight far from home.

What did Britain gain from the Treaty of Paris (1763)?

Britain acquired territory greater in size than the Roman Empire at its height, including most of Canada and expanded territory in India, establishing itself as a global empire.

What was the Royal Proclamation of 1763?

A decree that established a boundary line preventing colonial settlers from moving west of the Appalachian Mountains. It was intended to prevent conflicts with Native Americans.

Why did colonists resent the Proclamation of 1763?

They felt betrayed - they had fought the war partly to gain access to western lands, but now Britain was blocking expansion. It seemed like Britain was doing what the French had done: cutting colonists off from their frontier destiny.

Was the Proclamation Line enforceable?

No, it was essentially unenforceable. Britain lacked the soldiers and resources to police such a vast boundary from Maine to Georgia, even with modern technology this would be extremely difficult.

What was Pontiac's Rebellion (1763)?

An uprising led by Pontiac, a charismatic leader of the Shawnee and Ottawa tribes. After France abandoned its Native American allies, these tribes rebelled against British expansion. The rebellion was costly for Britain to suppress.

Who were the Paxton Boys?

A group of mostly Scots-Irish frontiersmen who massacred about 20 peaceful Susquehannock Native Americans in the Conestoga Massacre, then marched on Philadelphia with grievances. Benjamin Franklin convinced them to disperse.

What pattern does the Conestoga Massacre illustrate?

A recurring pattern where peaceful, assimilating Native Americans suffer most from anti-Native violence, while hostile Native leaders are often harder to target. This happened with praying town Indians, during Bacon's Rebellion, and here.

What was significant about British tactics in Pontiac's Rebellion?

Lord Jeffrey Amherst sent blankets used by smallpox victims to Pontiac's allies - one of the first documented examples of biological warfare in world history. This showed a chilling application of Enlightenment scientific knowledge.

How did French intellectual Voltaire explain the war?

He dismissively said it was fought over "a few acres of snow in Canada," missing the larger significance of the conflict.

What was the debt-to-GDP ratio problem for Britain?

Debt before the war was about 80% of national product. After 1763, it increased dramatically. By the American Revolution, over half the budget went just to paying interest, not even reducing the principal.

Why were people in Britain and the colonies frightened by national debt?

The national bank could raise money without taxing people or much democratic oversight. For those committed to democratic values, this seemed dangerous. For people who had experienced debt or servitude, government willingly going into debt seemed insane.

What was the disagreement between Hamilton and Jefferson about the war's lessons?

Hamilton admired Britain's strong financial system and wanted America to copy it, seeing national defense and strong banking as linked. Jefferson and Jackson feared banks with power but no democratic oversight.

What advantage did the British have in troop transport and supply?

Britain's large navy was crucial for transporting troops and supplies to the colonies, and for cutting off French supplies from arriving in Canada.

What was the population comparison between France and Britain?

Even in the early 19th century, France's population was triple that of Great Britain. France "outclassed" Britain in most traditional military measures.

What was unusual about British grenadiers by the 18th century?

Despite their name, they no longer threw hand grenades. They were selected for being big, strong, and resistant to injury, and specialized in bayonet charges rather than shooting.

Why did the British view militia as unreliable?

Militia wouldn't leave their home territories, weren't professional soldiers, and would likely run during serious fighting. They were defensive forces, not suitable for offensive operations.

What was Rogers' Rangers?

A colonial military unit trained to fight using Native American tactics. The modern U.S. Army's 75th Ranger Regiment traces its descent from this group.

What does Benjamin West's painting "The Death of Wolfe" suggest?

The painting shows Wolfe dying in a pose similar to Michelangelo's Pietà (Mary holding dead Jesus). This portrays Wolfe as a Christ-like savior figure who delivered the colonies from the French threat.

Why did the French think they "dodged a bullet" in the peace treaty?

The French feared Britain would annex a Caribbean sugar island. Britain chose not to because it would flood the market and lower sugar prices. The French thought losing Canada was the lesser loss, but were probably wrong given Canada's modern GDP and population.

What was the significance of ending "salutary neglect"?

Right when colonies were most independent (French threat gone, proven they could fight), Britain increased regulation and oversight. This created resentment, like parents becoming strict just as a child reaches adolescence.

Why did ending salutary neglect seem like bad timing?

The colonies had proven they could fight and die for Britain, the French threat was eliminated, and they felt they had earned western lands. Instead, Britain clamped down with more control and restrictions.

What did colonists no longer fear after 1763?

The "French Menace" - the Catholic, hostile French military power headquartered at the "stronghold of Satan" in Louisbourg. French power in North America was permanently broken.

Why did the elimination of the French threat weaken colonial-British ties?

If colonial wars brought colonies together, and the French threat was gone, who were the British really protecting colonists from? Britain struggled to explain why colonists still needed British protection.

What was the irony about British debt and democracy?

Banks could raise money through bonds without direct taxation or much democratic oversight. This was frightening to people who valued democratic control over government finances.

How many times was General Wolfe shot at Quebec?

He was shot two or three times during the battle. Bizarrely, each time he insisted "I got this, I'm good" before eventually dying from his wounds.

What happened when Highland Scottish regiments charged at Quebec?

After the British line fired, Scottish Highland regiments charged through the smoke screaming Gaelic war cries and wielding their claymore swords (the war swords, not the large double-handed swords). This broke French morale completely.

Why did the British load muskets with two musket balls at Quebec?

This "redneck" tactic increased the destructive power of each volley. When fired all at once, the French advanced guard "disappeared in a cloud of smoke."

What was the British doctrine for musket fire?

Don't aim - if you take time to aim, you're doing it wrong. The goal is for everyone to fire at once to create maximum shock and fear, not precise targeting.

What compromise did Benjamin Franklin make with the Paxton Boys?

Franklin convinced the armed frontiersmen to disperse instead of potentially overthrowing the Pennsylvania government. He promised to personally bring their grievances to the Pennsylvania legislature.

What pattern do the Paxton Boys represent?

Another conflict between eastern colonial governments and aggrieved western frontiersmen who felt the government was out of touch with frontier interests. This was seen in multiple colonies, not just Pennsylvania.

What was the basic territorial situation of British colonies before the French and Indian War?

British colonies along the Eastern Seaboard were surrounded by large European powers - France in Canada and the Midwest, and Spanish Florida to the South. Despite several colonial wars (King William's War, Queen Anne's War, King George's War), this situation remained unchanged.

What territorial claims did British colonies make westward?

British colonies claimed all territory extending westward from their borders to the Pacific. For example, North Carolina claimed territory including present-day Tennessee, Arkansas, and parts of Texas. These claims continued even after independence.

How did French and British populations compare in North America by the French and Indian War?

British colonies had about 2 million people, while New France had only about 60,000 European settlers. Despite France having larger territory, Britain had a much smaller territory but vastly larger population. Britain itself had about 7 million people.

What was the Ohio River Valley and why was it important?

The Ohio River Valley was a large area (about a third the size of the Eastern Seaboard, not just modern Ohio) where both British and French had conflicting territorial claims. The French began building forts there in the 1740s-1750s.

Why did the French build forts in the Ohio River Valley?

The forts were meant to forestall British colonial immigration westward, which would come at the expense of Native Americans and threaten French territorial claims and alliances.

How did the French economy in North America differ from the British?

The French adopted an economy based on the fur trade with Native Americans rather than cash crops and large settlements. This made them more dependent on Native American cooperation and alliances.

What was the Métis?

A mixed European-Native American group that resulted from French fur trappers (mostly male) marrying Native American women from various tribes.

What were the Beaver Wars?

Wars fought between the French and their Algonquin allies against the Iroquois Confederacy over who had the right to buy, sell, and trade furs with European merchants. This established a long-standing division between these groups.

How did French-Native American relations differ from British-Native American relations?

The French built alliances through the fur trade, intermarriage (creating the Métis), and more culturally tolerant approaches. The British viewed Native Americans as either benign or the enemy, wanted their land for settlement, and adopted more condescending attitudes.

Which Native American groups allied with the French?

Many Algonquin tribes including the Shawnee, Ottawa, Delaware/Lenape, and initially the Cherokee (for one year). The French had far more Native American allies than the British.

Which Native American groups allied with the British?

The Mohawk, Catawba, and Iroquois Confederacy. The Iroquois had economic ties with the British due to cheaper, higher-quality British goods.

What were key cultural differences between Algonquin and Iroquois tribes?

Iroquois tribes tended to be more democratic and decentralized. Algonquin tribes were ruled by powerful war leaders called sachems and organized society more along military lines with a warrior caste wielding political authority.

Why did the British struggle to maintain Native American alliances?

The British often alienated their tribal allies through poor treatment. For example, the Cherokee allied with Britain at the start of the French and Indian War but left after one year due to mismanagement of the relationship. The sons of William Penn also alienated the Lenape/Delaware after his death.

What made the French and Indian War different from previous colonial wars?

It was unprecedented in scale - a true world war. It had massive armies and fleets, was fought across the world (Canada, Europe, India), involved major European powers including Prussia, and had global consequences that changed world history.

What is the Seven Years War?

The European name for the French and Indian War. Ironically called the "Seven Years War" even though it lasted from 1754-1763 (nine years in the American colonies).

How did the French and Indian War affect global history?

It solidified Britain as a global superpower and the preeminent power in both North America and the Indian subcontinent. It was essential to understanding both American and Indian history - America gained independence in 1776, but India didn't gain independence until 1947.

What was George Washington's background before the French and Indian War?

He came from a modest Virginia Piedmont family (landowners with a few slaves but not planter class), was overshadowed by older brother Lawrence, and worked as a land surveyor. He became a colonel in the Virginia militia through connections with Royal Governor Robert Dinwiddie.

What book did young George Washington study and why?

A book by a Jesuit priest on protocol and etiquette - essentially a guide on how to be an aristocrat if you're not one. He memorized and rewrote the rules repeatedly to prepare for leadership, as he wasn't educated enough to become a bureaucrat, lawyer, or doctor.

What was Washington's position in the Virginia militia?

Colonel - a position that was more political than military. It meant you were well-connected and knew people, not that you attended military academy or knew tactics. Officers had to be figures of importance who showed up.

What was the Jumonville incident and why was it significant?

Washington and his troops encountered a small French scouting party led by Lieutenant Jumonville in Western Pennsylvania. Washington's men fired on them, killing Jumonville and over a dozen men, who were then scalped by Washington's Native American allies. This incident helped spark the global war.

What was Fort Duquesne?

A French fort constructed in what is now Western Pennsylvania (near Pittsburgh). The area was claimed by Virginia, and rumors of this fort prompted Governor Dinwiddie to send Washington to evict the French presence.

What was Fort Necessity and what happened there?

After the Jumonville incident, Washington retreated and built Fort Necessity. He made a critical tactical error by positioning it in a valley rather than on high ground. The French overlooked the fort, fired cannons down into it, and forced Washington to surrender - his first independent command ended in failure.

Why did the French release Washington after Fort Necessity?

Presumably they assumed Washington was more dangerous to his own side than to the French, given his tactical failures.

What was the purpose of the Albany Congress in 1754?

To create a unified colonial government to manage the war effort, coordinate intercolonial defense, and negotiate with Native American tribes, especially the Iroquois Confederacy. Previous colonial wars had each colony fighting separately, while the French had unified leadership.

What government structure was proposed at the Albany Congress?

A "President General" appointed by the king to serve as a super royal governor, and a Grand Council to act as a cabinet and legislative body for intercolonial defense and taxation.

Why did the Albany Congress fail?

Only 7 of 13 colonies attended (mostly northern colonies on the front lines); colonies were reluctant to surrender taxing power and privileges to a central government; different colonies had conflicting interests regarding Native American lands; established legislatures like the House of Burgesses didn't want to give up century-old powers.

What was the significance of the Albany Congress despite its failure?

It showed conflicts could bring colonies together and raised fundamental questions about central vs. state power that would persist through 1776, 1787, and beyond. It was a precursor to the Continental Congresses and Constitutional Convention.

Who created the "Join, or Die" political cartoon and why?

Benjamin Franklin created it during the Albany Congress to express frustration with colonial shortsightedness and parochial interests preventing unity.

What role did mercantilism play in colonial relations?

Colonies were viewed not just as sources of resource extraction but as marketplaces for goods - including sales to Native Americans. This gave the British an economic advantage with tribes like the Iroquois.

What was the Iroquois Confederacy?

A political organization uniting Iroquois tribes (not a nation-state, but tribes sharing cultural and linguistic similarities). They had longstanding economic ties with the British due to trade and conflicts with the French and Algonquin since the Beaver Wars.

Who was Robert Dinwiddie?

The royal governor of Virginia (unfortunate name noted by lecturer) who was close to George Washington and ordered him to evict the French presence from Western Pennsylvania, leading to the Jumonville incident.

What earlier conflicts set the stage for the French and Indian War?

King William's War, Queen Anne's War, and King George's War (also called the War of Jenkins' Ear) - these colonial wars brought British American colonies together but didn't change the basic fact that they were surrounded by large European powers.

How did European concepts of nation-states differ from Native American organization?

Europeans had nation-states where language and cultural identity matched political boundaries (like Spain for Spanish speakers). Native Americans organized by tribes that might share linguistic/cultural similarities (like Algonquin or Iroquois) but weren't unified nation-states.

What problems from the Albany Congress persisted in American history?

How much power to give central government vs. individual states; division of powers between state and federal government; competing regional interests. These issues didn't go away in 1776 or even after 1787.