Cogsci Lecture 3 - Language

how do we understand individual words, and how are words combined to create sentences?

words are made of phonemes, the smallest units of spoken language. Morphemes are only relevant for words that can be broken apart to sub-words with their own meaning (ex: “government“ = “govern” + “ment” [a suffix used to convert verbs to nouns]).

the process of realizing how a sequence of phonemes should be split into words is called “word segmentation” and it is based on learned transitional probabilities.

What are morphemes?

the smallest unit of a language that we give meaning. They can be prefixes or suffixes. For example the “s” in bedrooms makes the word bedroom plural.

What are phonemes?

sounds or the smallest unit of spoken language

What are Syntactic Trees?

they are diagrams that illustrate the hierarchical structure of sentences, showing how words combine to form phrases and the relationships between different parts of speech.

What are transitional probabilities?

the likelihood that one event such as a word will follow another in a given context, helping in the understanding of the structure of language and word segmentation

What is the phonemic restoration effect?

an auditory illusion where listeners “hear” missing sounds in a word, even when those sounds are replaced by noise. This is due to the brain filling in the missing phoneme based on context. Context is crucial for language perception. Words in “isolation” are difficult to understand (ex: pitch, accent, etc.) vs when in context

What is word segmentation?

the task of identifying and separating words within a string of text. ie the process of identifying the boundaries between words in spoken language

What is the word superiority effect?

people can more easily recognize letters when they are presented within a word than when they are presented in isolation or as part of a non-word

What is the word frequency effect?

individuals process and recognize high-frequency words faster and more easily than low-frequency words
where faster recognition is a “lexical decision” and faster reading we know because of eye tracking

What is ambiguity for language processing?

refers to instances where a word, phrase, or sentence has multiple meanings, making it challenging for listeners or readers to interpret the meaning based on context. Ambiguous words force the brain to make connections to “fill in the blanks“ based on context/ exposure

What are semantics?

semantics in linguistics is the study of meaning, focusing on how words, phrases, and sentences convey meaning and how context influences the interpretation of that meaning.

What is syntax?

the set of rules and principles that govern the structure of sentences, including the arrangement of words and phrases to create meaningful expressions.

What is Broca’s area?

the part of the brain that is crucial for speech production, articulation, and complex sentence structures

What is Broca’s aphasia?

also known as non-fluent aphasia, is a language impairment where an individual has great difficulty producing speech. individuals with this condition often speak in short, labored sentences, and struggle with making sounds + grammatical speech, while generally maintaining comprehension.

What is Wernieke’s aphasia (fluent)?

a type of fluent aphasia characterized by impaired language comprehension and the production of nonsensical or irrelevant speech, despite often maintaining a normal rate of speech

What are Event Related Potentials?

ERPs are brainwave patterns recorded from the scalp that are synchronized with specific events, such as the presentation of a stimulus or cognitive task. Two kinds to know:

a) the N400 effect is associated with semantic processing (ie it spikes if the brain encounters something semantically unexpected like the sentence “cats won’t bake”)
b) the P600 effect which is linked to syntactic processing (ie it has increased reanalysis/ spikes if there is a grammatical violation like the sentence “the cats won’t eating“)

What does parsing refer to in linguistics?

parsing is the process of analyzing a sentence into its grammatical components to understand its structure, which involves determining the syntactic roles of words and phrases

What is the syntax-first approach to parsing?

the syntax-first approach to parsing emphasizes the importance of syntactic structure in understanding sentence meaning, positing that sentences are processed based primarily on their syntactic rules before considering semantic information.

Process:
step 1: follow syntactic trees
if there is error/ further difficulty
step 2: go to semantics

What is the interactionist approach to parsing?

argues that language understanding involves the integration of syntax and semantics suggesting that comprehension occurs through parallel processing where multiple sources of information influence interpretation simultaneously. It suggests that linguistic knowledge is built through interactions with others and the environment, rather than solely innate abilities.

What are situation models in the context of parsing?

The idea that understanding language involves simulating the actions and situations described. Situation models are cognitive representations that capture the state of affairs described in text, enabling readers or listeners to mentally simulate and understand the context, events, and relationships represented in a sentence or discourse.

What are anaphoric inferences?

assuming what is happening in one sentence based on what happened in previous ones, for example: “I ate an apple. The apple was good.”

What is meant by inference/ maxims?

inferences are assumptions based on given data, and maxims are general truths agreed upon by all. If you violate maxims it leads to slower comprehension. They are principles of conversation that guide speakers and listeners, and are based on the idea that effective communication depends on adherence to cooperative principles like relevance and clarity.

What is shared knowledge/ common ground in linguistics?

it is the information mutually known or assumed between participants in a conversation, which facilitates effective communication and understanding

What is mirroring/ mimicry?

mirroring is copying someone’s semantic structures, syntax, and mannerisms facilitating mutual understanding and saving on resources. It can also enhance social rapport and communication effectiveness

What is priming for in linguistics?

priming is a phenomenon where exposure to one stimulus influences the response to a subsequent stimulus, often used in language studies to examine connections between concepts and words

What does implicit word order mean?

it is the assumed order of different words (ex: the beautiful old lady vs the old beautiful lady). It refers to the underlying structures of sentence organization that can influence how listeners interpret the relationships between different components in a sentence.