PSY 324 Exam 2

Executive Functioning

A set of high-order cognitive processes that manage and control other cognitive abilities and behaviors. These are crucial for goal-directed behavior, including planning, decision-making, problem-solving, cognitive flexibility, inhibiting impulses, and working memory. In adult development, the decline in executive functions is a key predictor of difficulties in managing complex daily tasks and independence in later life.

Fluid Intelligence (Gf)

The ability to solve novel problems, reason abstractly, and identify patterns. It is thought to be more biologically based and tends to decline gradually from middle adulthood.

Crystallized Intelligence (Gc)

The accumulation of knowledge, skills, and experience over a lifetime. It often remains stable or can even increase well into later adulthood.

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-IV)

The most widely used individual test of intelligence for adults (ages 16-90). It provides a comprehensive profile of cognitive strengths and weaknesses through several index scores and a Full-Scale IQ.

Verbal Comprehension Index

A WAIS-IV index measuring acquired knowledge, verbal reasoning, and concept formation. It is a strong indicator of Crystallized Intelligence and is often well-maintained in healthy aging.

Perceptual Reasoning Index

A WAIS-IV index measuring fluid reasoning, spatial processing, and visual-motor integration. It is a strong indicator of Fluid Intelligence and is more susceptible to age-related decline.

Working Memory Index

A WAIS-IV index measuring the ability to hold, manipulate, and update information in one's mind for a short period. It is a core component of executive functioning and is sensitive to the cognitive changes of aging

Processing Speed Index

A WAIS-IV index measuring the speed and accuracy of visual scanning and simple information processing. It typically shows the most pronounced and earliest age-related decline.

Full-Scale IQ (FSIQ)

A composite score on the WAIS-IV that represents an individual's overall intellectual ability, derived from the combination of all index scores. In adult development, it is less informative than the individual index scores for understanding age-related cognitive changes.

Raven Progressive Matrices

A non-verbal test of abstract reasoning and fluid intelligence. It is considered a culture-fair assessment and is widely used in research on cognitive aging

Primary Mental Abilities Test (PMAT)

A test based on Louis Thurstone's theory of intelligence, which posits several primary mental abilities rather than a single "g" factor. It is historically significant in adult developmental research (e.g., the Seattle Longitudinal Study).

Verbal Meaning

The ability to understand ideas expressed in words. A primary mental ability that is a component of crystallized intelligence.

Word Fluency

The ability to produce words rapidly, often under specific constraints (e.g., words starting with 'F'). A primary mental ability that can be sensitive to frontal lobe and executive function changes

Spatial Relations

The ability to visualize and manipulate objects in space. A primary mental ability that is a component of fluid intelligence

Perceptual Speed

The ability to quickly and accurately compare visual symbols and patterns. A primary mental ability that declines noticeably with age.

General Reasoning

The ability to solve logical problems and deduce principles. A primary mental ability closely aligned with fluid intelligence

Neuropsychological Assessment

A comprehensive evaluation of cognitive and behavioral functioning using a battery of tests to diagnose cognitive deficits, track changes over time, and relate behavior to brain functioning. It is essential for diagnosing conditions like dementia in older adults.

Everyday Problem Solving

The ability to solve practical problems encountered in daily life (e.g., managing finances, responding to a household emergency). Research shows that this form of pragmatic intelligence may be distinct from traditional psychometric intelligence and can be maintained or even improve with age due to life experience.

Postformal Operations

A proposed adult stage of cognitive development beyond Piaget's formal operations. It is characterized by the understanding that problems can have multiple causes and solutions, that solutions must be realistic, and that logic is integrated with practical experience and emotional intelligence.

Dialectical Thinking

A key component of postformal thought, involving the ability to hold, evaluate, and synthesize opposing viewpoints or contradictory information to arrive at a more integrated understanding. It is considered a more mature form of thinking that develops in adulthood

Trolley Problem

A moral dilemma used in research to study the development of ethical reasoning and decision-making across the adult lifespan. It often reveals shifts in moral priorities, with older adults sometimes placing a higher value on deontological (rule-based) principles over purely utilitarian outcomes.

Lifelong Learning

The ongoing, voluntary, and self-motivated pursuit of knowledge for personal or professional development throughout one's life. It is a key factor in promoting cognitive vitality and psychological well-being in adulthood.

Psychological Well-being

A multifaceted concept of optimal psychological functioning. Carol Ryff's model defines it through six factors: self-acceptance, positive relations with others, autonomy, environmental mastery, purpose in life, and personal growth.

Biopsychosocial Model of Driving

A comprehensive framework for understanding driving behavior and cessation in older adults, considering the interaction of Biological (sensory, motor, cognitive changes), Psychological (personality, self-awareness), and Social (social roles, support systems) factors.

Psychodynamic Theory

A psychological perspective, originating with Freud, that emphasizes unconscious psychological processes and the influence of early childhood experiences. In adult development, it has evolved to focus more on the entire lifespan and adaptive functions of the ego.

Psychosocial Development

Erik Erikson's stage theory of human development, which posits that individuals pass through eight distinct stages from infancy to late adulthood. Each stage presents a psychosocial "crisis" that must be resolved for healthy personality development. The adult stages are: Intimacy vs. Isolation (young adulthood), Generativity vs. Stagnation (middle adulthood), and Ego Integrity vs. Despair (late adulthood).

Ego Psychology

A school of psychodynamic theory that emphasizes the adaptive and integrative functions of the ego, such as defense mechanisms, reality testing, and identity formation, as central to healthy adult development.

Rochester Adult Longitudinal Study (RALS)

A long-running study that has tracked individuals from college age into late adulthood, providing key insights into the stability and change of personality, adaptation, and defense mechanisms across the lifespan.

Authentic Road

A path characterized by sound mental health and high functioning throughout adulthood.

Straight and Narrow

A path of consistently average functioning.

Meandering Way

A path of inconsistent and turbulent functioning.

Triumphant Trail

A path of significant improvement in functioning from a troubled young adulthood.

Downward Slope

A path of decline in functioning from a healthy young adulthood.

Adult Attachment Theory

An extension of infant attachment theory to romantic and close relationships in adulthood. It categorizes individuals based on their internal working models of self and others.

Dismissive Attachment

An insecure attachment style characterized by a positive view of self but a negative view of others, leading to discomfort with intimacy and a tendency to be emotionally distant and self-reliant

Anxious Attachment

An insecure attachment style characterized by a negative view of self but a positive view of others, leading to a strong fear of abandonment, a need for excessive reassurance, and high relationship anxiety

Defence Mechanisms

Unconscious psychological strategies used to protect the ego from anxiety arising from unacceptable thoughts or feelings.

Immature Defence Mechanisms

Less adaptive, often reality-distorting mechanisms (e.g., denial, projection, acting out). Their predominant use is linked to poorer psychological adjustment.

Mature Defence Mechanisms

Adaptive, integrative mechanisms that manage conflict without distorting reality (e.g., humor, suppression, altruism, sublimation). Their use increases with age and is linked to better psychological health.

Trait Theory

An approach to personality that focuses on identifying, describing, and measuring individual differences in stable dispositional tendencies

Five-Factor Model (FFM) / Big Five Personality Traits

A dominant trait theory that posits five broad dimensions of personality

Neuroticism

The tendency to experience negative emotions like anxiety, anger, and depression

Extraversion

The tendency to be sociable, assertive, active, and experience positive emotions

Openness to Experience

The tendency to be imaginative, curious, artistically sensitive, and receptive to new ideas and experiences.

Agreeableness

The tendency to be trusting, compassionate, cooperative, and altruistic.

Conscientiousness

The tendency to be organized, disciplined, dependable, and achievement-oriented.

Type A Behaviour Pattern

A complex pattern of behavior and emotion characterized by extreme competitiveness, time urgency, impatience, and hostility. It was initially identified as a risk factor for coronary heart disease.

Socioemotional Selectivity Theory

A life-span theory of motivation which posits that as people perceive their time left in life as limited (as they age), their goals shift from being knowledge-oriented to emotion-oriented. They become more selective, investing more in emotionally meaningful relationships and activities.

Cognitive Self-Theories

Beliefs individuals hold about the self, particularly the malleability of personal attributes.

Entity Theory

The belief that attributes (like intelligence) are fixed

Incremental Theory

The belief that attributes are malleable and can be developed.

Possible Selves

Representations of what individuals hope to become, fear becoming, or expect to become in the future. They serve as motivators and organizers for adult development and goal-directed behavior.

Coping

The cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage specific external and/or internal demands that are appraised as taxing

Control

The belief in one's ability to exert influence over one's environment and outcomes. The Theory of Primary and Secondary Control describes how, with age, individuals may shift from striving to change the world (primary control) to adjusting their own internal states to fit the world (secondary control), which is an adaptive strategy.

Identity Process Theory

A theory proposing that identity is maintained through the dual processes of assimilation (fitting new experiences into the existing identity) and accommodation (changing identity to fit new experiences). Successful aging involves a balance between the two.

Midlife Crisis Theory

A popular but largely unsupported theory that posits a universal, inevitable period of dramatic self-doubt and turmoil in the middle years. Research suggests that while some people experience crises, midlife is more typically a period of stability, generativity, and reevaluation rather than crisis.

Pathways Model

A model suggesting there are multiple, diverse pathways through adult development (e.g., focused on career, family, or multiple roles), rather than a single, normative path.

Marriage and Intimate Relationships

A central context for adult development, providing emotional support, intimacy, and companionship. The quality of these relationships is a strong predictor of health and well-being across adulthood.

Family Life-Cycle Approach

A framework that views families as moving through a sequence of predictable stages (e.g., coupling, parenting young children, launching children, retirement), each with its own developmental tasks and challenges.

Socioemotional Selectivity Theory (applied to relationships)

Explains why older adults have smaller, but more emotionally satisfying and close-knit, social networks. They prioritize existing, emotionally significant relationships over seeking new, information-focused ones.

Social Exchange Theory

A theory suggesting that relationships are maintained by a cost-benefit analysis; individuals seek to maximize rewards and minimize costs.

Equity Theory

An extension of social exchange theory proposing that people are most satisfied in a relationship when the ratio of benefits to contributions is perceived as equal for both partners

Similarity Hypothesis

The well-supported idea that people are attracted to and form lasting relationships with others who are similar to them in attitudes, values, education, and background.

Need Complementarity

The idea that opposites attract, specifically that people are attracted to partners who possess qualities that they lack. This hypothesis has received much less empirical support than the similarity hypothesis.

Suffocation Model

A model of marriage proposing that modern marriages are expected to fulfill more psychological needs (e.g., for self-esteem, personal growth) than in the past, which can lead to disappointment and strain when these high expectations are not met.

Empty Nest

The transition period when the last child leaves the parents' home.

Empty Nest Syndrome (ENS)

A term for feelings of depression, sadness, and loss of purpose that some parents (traditionally mothers) are theorized to experience when their children leave home. Research shows this is not a universal experience and many parents report increased marital satisfaction and personal freedom.

Boomerang Children

Young adult children who return to live in their parents' home after a period of independence.

Parent–adult child relationships

The ongoing, dynamic relationship between parents and their grown children, which is typically one of the most important and enduring relationships across the adult life course.

Filial Maturity

A stage in the parent-adult child relationship characterized by mutual respect, empathy, and a peer-like quality, where the adult child is capable of providing support to the parent.

Filial Anxiety

Worry or concern that adult children may feel about their aging parents' well-being and their own ability to provide care.

Filial Obligation (Filial Piety)

The sense of moral and social responsibility that adult children feel to care for and support their aging parents. It is a culturally-variable concept, highly emphasized in collectivist cultures.

Intergenerational Solidarity Model (ISM)

A multidimensional model for understanding the bonds between family members across generations

Associational Solidarity

Frequency and patterns of contact.

Affectual Solidarity

The type and degree of positive sentiments.

Consensual Solidarity

Agreement on values, attitudes, and beliefs

Functional Solidarity

The exchange of instrumental and financial support

Normative Solidarity

The strength of commitment to familial roles and obligations.

Structural Solidarity

Opportunities for interaction (e.g., geographic distance).

Grandparent Identity

The meaning and significance an individual attaches to their role as a grandparent, which can vary widely (e.g., as a source of fun, a family historian, a wisdom figure, or a caregiver).

Reciprocity (in friendships)

The mutual exchange of support, affection, and resources. Balanced reciprocity is a key characteristic of high-quality, enduring adult friendships.

Peripheral Ties

Acquaintances or members of one's social network who are not close friends or family. While less intimate, these ties can provide important social integration and access to diverse information and resources.

Dyadic Withdrawal

The phenomenon where, as a romantic relationship becomes more serious, the partners tend to withdraw from their broader social networks and focus more on each other.

Platonic Couple Love

A deep, committed, non-romantic friendship between two individuals that serves many of the same intimacy functions as a romantic partnership.

Friendship Formation

The process of initiating and building a friendship, often based on proximity, similarity, and repeated, positive interactions

Friendship Maintenance

The behaviors and efforts used to sustain a friendship over time, such as communication, support, and shared activities.

Friendship Dissolution

The process by which a friendship ends, often due to life transitions, conflicts, or a gradual drifting apart.

Labour Force Participation

The extent to which a population is engaged in formal employment. Patterns have changed significantly for older adults, with many delaying full retirement.

Vocational Development

The process of developing a vocational identity and making career choices across the lifespan.

Vocational Interests

An individual's preferences for certain types of work activities and environments

Holland’s RIASEC Model

A theory that proposes six primary personality/types work environments

Realistic (R)

"Doers" who prefer hands-on, practical work (e.g., mechanic, farmer)

Investigative (I)

"Thinkers" who prefer analytical, intellectual work (e.g., scientist, programmer).

Artistic (A)

"Creators" who prefer unstructured, creative work (e.g., artist, musician).

Social (S)

"Helpers" who prefer working with and helping people (e.g., teacher, nurse).

Enterprising (E)

"Persuaders" who prefer leading, persuading, and business-oriented work (e.g., salesperson, lawyer).

Conventional (C)

"Organizers" who prefer structured, detail-oriented work (e.g., accountant, data entry clerk).

RIASEC Congruence Model

The proposition that a good fit (congruence) between an individual's personality type and their work environment leads to greater job satisfaction, stability, and achievement.

Job Prestige

The social status or esteem associated with a particular occupation.

Super’s Life-Span, Life-Space Theory

A developmental theory of career development that views career choice as an implementation of one's self-concept and as unfolding in stages across the life span, while being influenced by multiple life roles (life-space).