COMM 1101 Exam #2

why is verbal communication important?

-foundation on which meaning is created

-plays a key role in identity and relationship development

-the language people speak is tied to their identities

what is verbal communication?

-words, pronunciation, meanings, and linguistic variation

-"written or oral words we exchange"

what are the seven functions of language?

1. instrumental

2. regulatory function

3. informative

4. heuristic

5. interactional

6. personal language

7. imaginative

instrumental

gets you what you need or what you want; demands

regulatory

helps you control the behavior of others

informative

teaching or sharing knowledge

heuristic

gaining knowledge and understanding

interactional

helps start and maintain relationships

personal language

how you express yourself; personality (more in private than public; humor or sarcasm)

imaginative

how you express your creativity or artistic ability (poetry, story telling, etc.)

what are the four components of language?

1. phonology

2. syntax

3. semantics

4. pragmatics

phonology

the study of sounds that compose individual languages and how those sounds communicate meaning (sounds becoming words, which have meaning)

syntax

the rules that govern word order; how we combine nouns, verbs, and adjectives into clauses to relay messages in an understandable format

semantics

the study of meaning; shared meaning, denotative meaning (dictionary or literal), connotative meaning (affective and interpretive understanding)

pragmatics

the field of study that emphasizes how language is used in specific situations to accomplish goals (speech acts, conversational rules, contextual rules)

speech acts

actionable words; indirect (do you think you could drive me to the store?) vs. direct (drive me to the store.)

conversational rules (turn-taking)

-most basic rule of conversation is turn-taking

-two guiding principles (only one person should talk at a time and there can be no silence)

-turn-taking transcends culture (some cultures tolerate more overlap and allow slower responses) -turn-taking extends beyond face-to-face conversation

conversational rules (turn-maintaining)

-turn-maintaining cues allow the speaker to communicate their wish to remain in the role of the speaker

-common cues: audibly inhaling, continuing a gesture or series of gestures, avoiding eye contact with the listener, sustaining the intonation pattern, vocalizing pauses to prevent the listener from speaking

conversational rules (turn-yielding)

-cues that tell the listener that the speaker is finished and wishes to exchange the role of the speaker and the role of the listener

-common cues: formal methods (selecting the next speaker by name or raising a hand), adjacency pairs (a question that requires an answer), intonation, gesture, change in gaze direction

listener cues (turn-requesting)

interrupting facial (especially mouth) gestures

listener cues (turn-denying)

verbal deflection ("I don't know"), avoiding eye contact, or engaging in incompatible behavior (coughing, etc.)

backchanneling

-responses to the conversation (indicate agreement or disagreement, indicate degree of involvement, to pace the speaker, to ask for clarification)

contextual rules

-verbal communication is controlled by the situation

-scholars are concerned with the implicit communication rules that govern such situations

what are the three parts of the rhetorical situation as defined by Bitzer?

-rhetorical situation: the context of a rhetorical event that consists of an issue, an audience, and a set of constraints

1. exigency (issue): "an imperfection marked by urgency; it is a defect, an obstacle, something waiting to be done, a thing which is other than it should be"

2. audience: "audience consists only of those persons who are capable of being influenced by discourse and of being mediators of change"

3. constraints: "made up of persons, events, objects and relations which are parts of the situation because they have the power to constrain decision and action needed to modify the exigence"

influences on verbal communication

-dialect (language within language)

-age (cohort effect, contemporary slang), gender (norms, patterns, expectations), regionality (pronounciation, lexical choice), ethnicity and race (code-switching), education and occupation (jargon)

language and perception

-nominalists (any idea can be expressed through language)

-relativisits (language is not just a way to express ideas, but it is the shaper of ideas and the guide for mental activity); sapir-whorf hypothesis (the language people speak determines the way they see the world)

co-cultural theory of power

-expresses the role of power in daily interaction

-every society has a hierarchy in which certain groups are privileged (these groups set the rules and language maintains the power of these groups), generalizations turn into stereotypes (consequences)

what influence does power have on verbal communication?

-word choice (using gender-neutral language, etc.)

-accents (certain accents have the attached perception of intelligence or lack of intelligence)

-labels (the powerful get to name and label; labels identify "abnormalities")

what is the difference between disconfirming and confirming messages?

-disconfirming: make us feel devalued and can hurt our self-concept (insults, demeaning speech, condescension)

-confirming: confirming messages make us feel valued and can help our self-concept (supportive, advice, empathy and sympathy)

what is the difference between "you" and "I" statements?

-use confirming messages by using "I" statements instead of "you" statements

-"you" statements make people defensive and are disconfirming ("you are always late")

-"I" statements are a three-part message that explains the other person's behavior, explains how you feel about that behavior, and explains how the person's behavior affects you

why is nonverbal communication important?

-influences how individuals interpret messages, especially those related to feeling, moods, and attitudes

-we engage in nonverbal behaviors the entirety of the time we are conscious

-can be difficult to interpret because they are multi-channeled (there is no glossary)

-nonverbal cues are important in conveying and interpreting verbal messages

-important to be able to "read" other people in everyday life

what is nonverbal communication?

-encompasses the sending and receiving of information through appearance, objects, the environment and behavior in social setting

-ex: physical communication (smiles, winks, gestures, body movement), aesthetic communication through creative expression (music, dance, theater, art), signs (signal flags, 21 gun salute, sirens), symbols (clothing, jewelry, etc.)

what is nonverbal behavior?

-all the nonverbal actions people perform

-nonverbal behavior becomes nonverbal communication when it is seen as intentional, it is regularly used within a group, and it has a recognized, agreed-upon interpretation

what are the four influences on nonverbal communication?

1. culture

2. relationships between people

3. how well you know the other person

4. sex or gender presentation

what are nonverbal codes?

-distinct, organized means of expression

-consisting of symbols and rules for their use

-nonverbal codes occur in sets (can't isolate aspects of the codes)

1. kinesics

2. paralinguistics

3. chronemics

4. proxemics

5. haptics

6. appearance and artifacts

kinesics

-study of how we use body movements and gestures to communicate

-illustrators (accompany/reinforce words), emblems (substitute words and phrases), adaptors (release physical or emotional tension), regulators (control flow of communication), posture (immediacy, relaxation, tension), movement (is it purposeful?)

-eye behavior: convey attraction and attention

-face functions: to display emotion (SADFISH: sadness, anger, disgust, fear, interest, surprise, happiness), to supplement (or add to) verbal communication, and to complement (or complete) verbal communication

paralinguistics

-all aspects of spoken language except for the words themselves (rate, volume, pitch, stress)

-voice qualities (how pitch, vocal range, rhythm, and articulation work together to create patterns or the "music" of the voice)

-vocalizations (sounds that don't conform to the structure of language)

chronemics

-study of how we use and perceive time (use of time, value of time, timing and sequencing, culture specific)

-monochronic: one task at a time

-polychronic: multiple activities simultaneously

proxemics

-the study of physical space (refers to the "invisible bubble" we place around our bodies; comfort zone)

-hall's personal space zones: intimate--0-18in (very close friends; intimate partners), personal--18in-4ft (friends and acquaintances), social--4ft-10ft (unfamiliar with others), public--10ft-farther (ceremonies, lectures, performances)

-territoriality (public vs. private territory, marker and labels)

haptics

-the study of how we use touch to communicate

-categories of touch: personal or functional touch, social-polite touch (part of daily interaction), friendship touch (warmth, closeness, caring), love-intimate touch (romantic partners and family), demand touch (establish dominance or power)

appearence and artifacts

-includes body shape and size, clothing, make-up, height, and hair

-attraction (physical, task, and social)

-homophily: perceived similarity between individuals increases levels of attraction

-includes any physical objects that communicate messages and/or guide social behaviors (personal adornment, environmental adornment)

what are the five functions of nonverbal messages?

1. communicate information (clarify verbal messages, reveal attitudes and motivation)

2. regulate interaction (manage conversational interaction)

3. express and manage intimacy (convey attraction and closeness)

4. social control (exercise influence over others)

5. service-task functions (signal close involvement between people in impersonal relationships)

how does society influence nonverbal communication?

-nonverbal communication and power are directly related

-nonverbal artifacts of the powerful often become norms

-nonverbal communication ad behavior can trigger prejudice and discrimination (not looking at people when we talk to them, watching certain people more closely than others, crossing the street to create more distance between ourselves and others)

nonverbal communication and ethics

-consider whether your nonverbal behaviors reflect your real attitudes, beliefs, and feelings; your nonverbal behaviors contradict the verbal message you are sending; your nonverbal behaviors insult, ridicule, or demean others; you're using your nonverbal behavior to intimidate, coerce, or silence someone; you would want anyone to observe your nonverbal behavior; you would want this nonverbal behavior directed to you or a loved one

what are the four stages of listening?

1. hearing (or sensing)

2. understanding

3. evaluating

4. responding

hearing

-sometimes referred to as sensing

-the listener detects sound waves

-hearing or sensing information is not the same as understanding or evaluating the information

understanding

-the listener interprets the message associated with the sound they've just heard

-understanding must take the thoughts that are expressed ans the emotional tone that accompanies them into consideration

-the meaning that is assigned affects how you will response (physiologically and communicatively)

evaluating

-once meaning in understood, the listener evaluates the message

-evaluation process often occurs without much conscious thought (ex: answering the door)

-evaluation sometimes requires critical analysis (ex: responding to a questions from your boss, etc.)

responding

-occurs in two phases (phase 1: responses you make while the speaker is talking, phase 2: the response you make after the speaker has stopped talking

-responses made with the speaker is talking are referred to as backchanneling cues

-responses made after the speaker has stopped talking are necessarily more elaborate

what is a listening style?

-a set of attitudes, beliefs, and predispositions about the how, where, when, who, and what of the information reception and encoding process

what are the four different listening styles?

1. action-oriented

2. content-oriented

3. people-oriented

4. time-oriented

action-oriented listening

-a preference for error-free and well-organized speaking, with an emphasis on active responding

-requires information listening skills

-suggestions for being a better action-oriented listener: attend to what the speaker is saying (maintain eye contact, face the person, and lean toward to speaker), don't judge prematurely, paraphrase, clarify, review and summarize

content-oriented listening

-an interest in detailed and complex information

-requires information listening with additional critical listening skills

-suggestions for developing critical listening skills: consider the speaker's credibility, listen between the lines, evaluate the message being sent and its implications, weigh the evidence, periodically review and summarize

people-oriented listening

-often associated with friendly, open communication and an interest in establishing ties with others rather than in controlling them

-involves supportive listening skills, focusing not only on understanding information, but also listening to others feelings

-suggestions for people-oriented listening: put the other person at ease, remove distractions, empathize with the other person, be patient, be aware of your own emotions

time-oriented listening

-prefers brief, concise speech because time is consequential

-the goal is the aural equivalent of bullet points

-no specific set of skills accompanies this style

-this style generally illustrates ineffective listening behavior

-according to the book, it is best to avoid this style unless absolutely necessary

how does gender affect listening?

-gender-based listening stereotypes suggest women are better listeners than men

-women are seen as non-interrupting, attentive, empathetic, other-centered, responsive and patient

-men as seen as logical, judgmental, interrupting, inattentive, self-centered and impatient

how does age affect listening?

-communication capacities and skill levels change during life stages

-stages of listening:

1. parents can and should adapt listening behavior for children (who don't understand conversational rules)

2. teenagers often close off channels of communication or grow critical of parents and other adults

3. potential for effective listening increases as children grow into adulthood

4. hearing may decline with age (physiological and/or psychological reasons)

how does nationality affect listening?

-culture can influence listening (especially nonverbal expression)

-many western cultures demonstrate good listening through eye contact, nodding your head and some backchanneling vocalizations

-in other cultures good listening involves avoiding eye contact and no vocal backchanneling

physical barriers to listening

-noisy environments or physical discomforts that make it difficult to concentrate

-good listening is strongly associated with a person's physical ability to hear

psychological barriers

-common psychological barriers are boredom and preoccupation (personal agendas, strong emotions)

-only pieces of the intended message make it through

barriers to listening (conflicting objectives)

-we understand and react to others' communicative attempts based in part of our own objectives

-multiple objective withing the same conversation are possible

barriers to listening (poor listening habits)

-five ineffective listening behaviors:

1. wandering (not focusing on the speaker)

2. rejecting (tuning out the speaker

3. judging (making hasty evaluations)

4. predicting (getting ahead of the speaker)

5. rehearsing (thinking about what to say next)

how does social hierarchy influence listening?

-we decide who to listen to/how we listen to them based on out assessment of the speaker

-common filters: social status (high status takes attention precedent), physical appearance (influenced by perceived attractiveness), vocal cues (a filter that influences listening; high pitch, accents)

how does context influence listening?

-different contexts call for different listening styles and behaviors

-interpersonal context: friendly listening

-professional context: task vs. relational listening

-some individuals and/or groups are marginalized based on societal forces (different societies mean different influential forces)

what are soundscapes?

-the everyday sounds in our environment/community

how do soundscapes impact listening?

-help establish a community identity

-can change over time

what are the old ethics of listening?

-choosing to listen, or not, is an ethical decision (ex: a racist, sexist, etc. joke)

-offering feedback is an ethical decision (ex: disconfirming communication)

-listening together is an ethical decision (ex: attending a sporting event, a concert, or political rally)

what are the new ethics of listening?

-communication has expanded beyond face-to-face interaction to include computer-mediated contexts

-the decision to listen, or not, is still and ethical decision

-social media has raised new concerns about sharing personal and/or confidential information

-anonymity

what is culture?

-learned patterns or perceptions, values, and behaviors shared by a group of people

what is intercultural communication?

-communication that occurs in interaction between people who are culturally different

-occurs on a continuum (people who are really similar on one end and people who are really different on the other)

why do we study intercultural communication?

-increased opportunities for intercultural contact (travel, increased diversity in the US, growing elderly population, the internet)

-enhanced business effectiveness (domestic and international)

-improved inter-group relations (better communication and understanding between people)

-enhanced self-awareness (learning about and interacting with people of different culture is a great way to better understand your own)

what is a border dweller?

-people living between cultures; often have to move between cultures, which could mean encountering conflicting religions, values, and obviously language

border dwellers through travel

-whether voluntarily or involuntarily (having to flee a war-torn country, etc.)

-culture shock

-reverse culture shock/reentry shock

border dwellers through socialization

-grow up between cultures (Asian-America, bisexual, etc.)

-people who are cultural minorities learn the rules and norms of both the dominant culture as well as their own

-could feel pressure to assimilate, but may not be well received when they do

border dwellers through relationships

-being in a relationship with someone of another race, class, religion, etc.

-especially challenging with your social support systems don't approve (family, friends, etc.)

what are cultural values?

-beliefs of a cultural group that are so much a part of the culture, they are never questioned; influence behavior and communication; typically tied to nationality, by they can be applied to groups based on class, gender and race

individualism and collectivism

-individualism: focus on independence and personal achievement

-collectivism: focus on the group harmony, cooperation and personal relationships

preferred personality

-is it more important "to do" or "to be"?

-to do: working hard for material gain no matter the cost (living to work)

-to be: spending time with friends and family and experiencing life (working to live)

view of human nature

-whether you see humans as mostly/inherently good or mostly/inherently evil

-can be influenced by religion, etc.

human-nature relationship

-occurs on a continuum

-one end is the belief that humans take precedent and control nature, and the other is that human are at nature's mercy

-in the middle is the belief that humans and nature exist in harmony

power distance

-tolerance for distribution of power

-high power distance: acceptance and expectation of unequal power distribution; people with power will remain in power and people without power can't get it

-low power distance: strive or equality; people with varying degrees of power can interact and treat each other as equals; and individual's level of power can change

long-term or short-term orientation

-a society's attitude toward virtue or truth

-long-term: virtue is important, as is perseverance; willingness to give up power for a higher purpose (usually follow polytheistic religions like Buddhism or Confucianism)

-short-term: having one fundamental truth; tend to emphasize individual achievement, quick results and personal security and safety (usually follow monotheistic religions like Christianity, Judaism, and Islam)

what is a dialect approach?

-moving from an "either/or" approach to a "both/and" approach

-moves away fro attributing a person's behavior to one thing or another

-sees behavior and intercultural communication as fluid

cultural-individual

some behaviors can be attributed to culture, but sometimes is just a person's personal style

personal-contextual

who a person is and where an interaction is happening can both influence communication (nationality, personality, and location)

difference-similarites

comparing difference and similarities between cultures; there could be more commonalities than originally thought

static-dynamic

even though most cultures have deep histories, they can also change to embrace new ideas or beliefs

history/past-present/future

what's going on right now is just as important as what has happened in the past; influences perception of different cultures

privilege-disadvantage

it's possible to be both privileged and disadvantaged at the same time; about perception and ability to recognize it

how can you communicate more ethically across cultures?

-all communication occurs within a context and culture is the biggest context of all

-everyone is part of a culture or micro-culture that is going to influence their communication and how they view things

-avoid the "zoo approach" (seeing people as exotic or the other takes away from their humanity)

-be open to alternative views of the world (think different instead of weird)

society and intercultural communication

-political and historical forces impact intercultural communication because of their lasting legacies (ex: slavery and the lasting implications on current race relations)

-power: the powerful make the rules (dominance and privilege, and ability)

what are some ways to improve intercultural communication skills?

-increase your motivation (desire to learn is necessary)

-increase your knowledge of self and others (the more you communicate with people of different cultures, the more you learn about yourself, and the better you become at interacting with people from different cultures)

-avoid stereotypes (rigid generalizations can lead to stereotyping and prejudice)