psych100 exam 1

psychology

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

empiricism

an evidence-based approach to gaining knowledge by conducting research that systematically investigates and measures phenomena of interest.

objective

factual, related to reality or physical objects; not influenced by emotions, unbiased

subjective

based on or influenced by personal feelings, tastes, or opinions

critical thinking

systematically evaluating information to reach conclusions based on the evidence that is presented

claim

an assertion of the truth of something, typically one that is disputed or in doubt

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

diversity

any difference between people that becomes apparent in a specific context.

ethics

the principles of right and wrong that guide an individual in making decisions

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

group of people responsible for reviewing proposed research at an institution to ensure it meets the accepted ethical standards of science and provides for participants' physical and emotional well-being

informed consent

an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

scientific method

a continuous five-step process that allows systematic observation and measurement of phenomena to reach one or more scientific goals

theory

a series of interconnected ideas or concepts that explains what is observed in research and that makes predictions about future events

hypothesis

a specific, testable prediction of what should be observed in a study if a theory is correct.

replication

repetition of a research study to confirm or contradict the original results

descriptive methods

research methods that provide a systematic and objective snapshot of what is occurring at a certain point in time

case study

a descriptive research method involving the intensive examination of one person or small group of atypical individuals

observational study

a descriptive research method involving systematically assessing and coding observable behavior across specific time intervals

observer bias

systematic errors in observation that occur because of an observer's expectations

reactivity

when someone changes their behavior because they are aware that it is being observed or measured.

self-report

a method of data collection in which people provide subjective information typically via questionnaire or interview, used in various types of research studies

correlational methods

research methods that examine how variables are naturally related in the real world without altering the variables and without revealing whether one factor causes changes in another

variable

a factor in a research study that can change (i.e., hold more than one value)

directionality problem

a situation in which it is unclear which variable in a correlational study came first, i.e., which variable influenced the other

third variable problem

the concept that a correlation between two variables may stem from both being influenced by another variable, which can, by itself, account for the association

experimental methods

research methods that can reveal causality by manipulating a variable and measuring its subsequent effects on another variable

causality

the notion that one variable directly influences another variable

independent variable

in an experiment, the variable that the researcher manipulates to examine its impact on the dependent variable

dependent variable

in an experiment the variable (usually the participant's behavior) that the researcher measures to determine how it is influenced by the manipulated variable

operational definition

a precise description or explanation of how a variable is measured or manipulated in a research study

experimental group

in an experiment, a group of participants that is exposed to a particular treatment of interest; thereby serving as one of the levels of the independent variable

control group

in an experiment, a group of participants that is not exposed to a treatment, thereby serving as a baseline condition of the independent variable

experimental control

refers to the steps taken by a researcher to minimize the possibility that anything other than the independent variable will influence the dependent variable in an experiment

confound

any factor in an experiment that unintentionally influences the dependent variable (i.e., other than the independent variable); i.e., a "third" variable

sampling

in psychological research, the method by which a researcher selects a set of people from the target population to serve as participants in a study

population

in psychological research, the target group of people to which the results of a research study is intended to apply

sample

in psychological research, a subset of the target population selected to participate in a study

random sample

in psychological research a subset of the population, in which all members are equally likely to be included

random assignment

in experimental research, the practice of placing research participants into the conditions of the independent variable, such that each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to each level

convenience sample

a group of participants in an experiment who are selected from the population on the basis of easy accessibility

random assignment

placing participants into the various conditions of an experiment (i.e., levels of the independent variable) by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

nervous system

a network of cells (neurons) that transmit signals throughout the body, allowing it to respond to internal & external stimuli

central nervous system (CNS)

a branch of the nervous system consisting of all of the neurons in the brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

a branch of the nervous system consisting of all of the nerves extending out from the brainstem and spinal cord

neuron

a cell in the nervous system (i.e., a "nerve cell") specialized to receive, process, and/or transmit information to other cells

dendrites

branchlike structures off a neural cell body; specialized to receive input from other neurons

cell body

central structure of a neuron containing the nucleus, responsible for integrating input from other neurons

axon

the long extension of a neuron that conducts electrical signals to communicate with other neurons

myelin sheath

a layer of fatty tissue surrounding axons of many neurons, speeding the transmission of neural impulses (action potentials)

terminal buttons

the endpoint of a neuron where neurotransmitters are released to communicate with other cells

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge (exchange of ions) that travels down an axon (i.e., "neural firing")

synapse

a junction where information is transmitted from one neuron to the next, usually involving neurotransmitters

synaptic transmission

the process through which neurotransmitters are released by one neuron, cross the synaptic gap, and interact with adjacent neurons

neurotransmitter

a chemical (molecule) that transmits information from one neuron to another (e.g., acetylcholine, dopamine)

agonist

a drug that enhances the actions of a neurotransmitter by binding to its receptor sites, or by enhancing its release or interfering with the recycling process

antagonist

a drug that inhibits the actions of a neurotransmitter by blocking its receptor sites, or by inhibiting its release or enhancing the recycling process

phrenology

an early theory that personality traits are associated with particular brain regions, measured via the contours of the skull

EEG (electroencephalogram)

a measurement of the brain's electrical activity recorded through electrodes placed on the scalp

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

a neuroimaging technique that produces a series of still images (slices) of the brain

fMRI (functional MRI)

a neuroimaging procedure that measures brain activity by detecting changes associated with blood flow

TMS (transcranial magnetic stimulation)

the use of strong magnets to briefly interrupt normal brain activity as a way to study brain function

hindbrain

most primitive part of the brain, composed of the medulla & pons (brainstem), and the cerebellum

medulla

a hindbrain structure at the base of the brainstem that controls heartbeat and respiration

pons

a hindbrain structure involved in arousal, and (along with the cerebellum) coordinating motor movements

cerebellum

a hindbrain structure located behind the brainstem, which helps coordinate movements and maintain balance

midbrain

a small brain region at the top of the brainstem including a set of structures involved in reflexive and voluntary movement

forebrain

the largest and most advanced portion of the brain that includes the cerebral cortex and several subcortical structures

subcortical

refers to lateralized structures of the forebrain that lie beneath the cerebral cortex and surround the brainstem

thalamus

a subcortical structure that relays incoming sensory information to the cerebral cortex

hypothalamus

a subcortical structure that directs several activities (the "four F's of survival") via the endocrine (hormonal) system

hippocampus

a subcortical structure involved in the formation of memories

amygdala

a subcortical structure involved in emotion

cerebral cortex

the outer portion of the forebrain, composed of two hemispheres and four lobes

corpus callosum

the large tract of axons connecting the two cerebral hemispheres

occipital lobe

posterior portion of the cerebral cortex responsible for processing visual input

temporal lobe

lateral portion of the cerebral cortex responsible for processing auditory input and object recognition

parietal lobe

top posterior portion of the cerebral cortex responsible for touch & pain processing, sensory integration, and spatial relations

frontal lobe

anterior portion of the neocortex responsible for voluntary movement, complex thought, and planning)

sensory cortex

the parts of the cerebral cortex that process input from the sense organs (eyes, ears, skin, etc.)

motor cortex

the posterior portion of the frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex responsible for the initiation of voluntary movements

association cortex

the parts of the cerebral cortex outside of sensory and motor areas in which many high-level brain processes occur.

prefrontal cortex

area in the frontal lobe responsible for higher-level cognitive functioning and personality

hemispheric specialization

the differences in function between the two halves of the cerebral cortex

split-brain

a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the corpus callosum

nerve

a bundle of axons ("fibers") extending outside the central nervous system, part of the peripheral nervous system

somatic nervous system

the branch of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles and receives sensory input from the skin, muscles & joints

autonomic nervous system

the branch of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary biological functions of internal organs

sympathetic nervous system

division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body for action in stressful situations (i.e., the "fight or flight" response)

parasympathetic nervous system

division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy (i.e., the "rest and digest" response)

endocrine system

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

hormones

chemical messengers manufactured the endocrine glands that travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

natural selection

the theory that those who inherit characteristics that help them adapt to their particular environment are more likely to survive and pass them on to their offspring

genes

individual segments of DNA that contain instructions for building proteins used for important cellular functions; functional units in hereditary transmission

genotype

the complete set of genetic instructions (i.e., all DNA) for an individual organism

monozygotic twins

twins arising a single fertilized egg that divides in the early stages of prenatal development forming two separate embryos

phenotype

the set of observable characteristics of an individual resulting from the interaction of its genes with the environment

heritability

the ability of a trait to be passed down from one generation to the next through genes (versus being influenced by the environment)

dizygotic twins

twins who are produced when two separate ova are fertilized by two separate sperm at roughly the same time

plasticity

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience