OpenStax Psychology 2E - Full (edited)

Optic nerve

large bundle of nerve fibers that carries impulses from the retina to the brain and is where the blind spot occurs

behaviorism

focus on observing and controlling behavior

biopsychology

study of how biology influences behavior

biopsychosocial model

perspective that asserts that biology, psychology, and social factors interact to determine an individual's health

cognitive psychology

study of cognitions, or thoughts, and their relationship to experiences and actions

forensic psychology

area of psychology that applies the science and practice of psychology to issues within and related to the justice system

functionalism

focused on how mental activities helped an organism adapt to its environment

humanism

perspective within psychology that emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all humans

personality psychology

study of patterns of thoughts and behaviors that make each individual unique

personality trait

consistent pattern of thought and behavior

psyche

Greek word for soul

psychoanalytic theory

focus on the role of the unconscious in affecting conscious behavior

structuralism

understanding the conscious experience through introspection

Wilhelm Wundt

established the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig, Germany

Plato

Socrates' most well known pupil. Founded an academy in Athens.

Descartes

French philosopher, nativist, and dualist

Dualism

the presumption that mind and body are two distinct entities that interact

William James

founder of functionalism; studied how humans use perception to function in our environment

Erik Erikson

famous for his 8-stage model of psychosocial development; neo-Freudian

John B. Watson

developed behaviorism (the study of observable behavior)

Ivan Pavlov

discovered classical conditioning; trained dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell

Lawrence Kohlberg

Theory of Moral Development

Naomi Weisstein

Credited with starting the feminist revolution in psychology

Anna Freud

Continued her father's work in psychoanalysis with an emphasis on children.

Charles Darwin

English natural scientist who formulated a theory of evolution by natural selection (1809-1882)

Democritus

Greek philosopher that said all matter is made of tiny particles called "atomos" or atoms

behaviorist perspective

the psychological perspective primarily concerned with observable behavior that can be objectively recorded and with the relationships of observable behavior to environmental stimuli

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

cognitive perspective

how we encode, process, store, and retrieve information

The Interpretation of Dreams

the Bible of Psychoanalysis by Freud

sociocultural perspective

perspective that focuses on the relationship between social behavior and culture

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

Stanley Milgram

obedience to authority; had participants administer what they believed were dangerous electrical shocks to other participants; wanted to see if Germans were an aberration or if all people were capable of committing evil actions

Albert Ellis

rational emotive behavior therapy

Introspection

examination of one's own thoughts and feelings

Herman Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)

created the forgetting curve and serial position effect in memory

Solomon Asch

Conducted famous conformity experiment that required subjects to match lines.

Harry Harlow

Studied attachment in monkeys with artificial mothers

Prefrontal Lobotomy

example of what happens when we rely on our subjective impressions; brain damage before and after the surgery remained the same

Heuristics

mental shortcuts or rules of thumb

Theory

a well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation of observed phenomena

Case Study

in depth study of rare cases (does not tell cause and effect); ex: Phineas Gage, H.M., Little Albert

Naturalistic Observation

watching behavior in real-world settings

High Degree of External Validity

extent to which we can generalize our findings to the real world

Low Degree of Internal Validity

extent to which we can draw cause-and-effect inferences

Observer Bias

the tendency of the observer to unconsciously skew observations to fit the research goal/expectations

Operational Definition

being specific about what is being observed; important to specify how we're measuring our variables ahead of time

Self-Report Measures and Surveys

surveys and questionnaires;
advantages:
-easy to administer
-subtle information
disadvantages:
-may not have insight
-may not be honest

Population

everyone in a particular group

Halo Effect

tendency of ratings of one positive characteristics to spill over to influence the ratings of other positive characteristics

Leniency Effect

tendency of raters to provide ratings that are overly generous (opposite of Halo Effect)

Attrition Rates

dropouts/people lost over the course of the study

Cross-sectional Research

a "snapshot;" a researcher compares multiple segments of the population at a given time

Cohort Effect

an effect that different age groups give different reaction results not necessarily due to their age

Confirmation Bias

looking for evidence to support a preexisting belief and ignoring evidence that contradicts it

Confounds

any difference between the experimental and control groups, other than the independent variable; makes it impossible to interpret any findings

Hawthorne Effect

phenomenon in which participant's knowledge that they're being studied can affect their behavior

Demand Characteristics

cues that participants pick up from a study that allow them to generate guesses regarding the researcher's hypotheses

Glial Cell

cell in the nervous system that: plays a role in formation of myelin and blood brain barrier, responds to injury, removes debris, enhances learning and memory

Neuronal Membrane

covers entire cell and separates the inside from the outside environment

Dendrite

receiving end of the neuron

Cell Body

soma/central area; maintains cell's vital functions

Axon

extends from cell body, sends messages to other neurons (messages go one-way only)

Axon Terminal

end of axon; where neurotransmitter production and release happens

Action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

Brain-communication

electro-chemical

Synaptic Vesicles

small capsules that make neurotransmitter and release into the synaptic cleft

Pre-synaptic Membrane

semi-permeable covering on the end of the axon terminal

Synaptic Cleft

small space between axon and dendrite

Post-synaptic Membrane

semi-permeable covering on the end of the dendrite

Myelin

fat covering on axon

Chemical Messengers

Neurotransmitters

Serotonin

happy mood

Dopamine

motor function and rewarding feeling

Acetylcholine

muscle control and cortical (cortex) arousal

Anadamide

pain reduction, increase appetite

Norepinephrine

mood, hunger, sleep, adrenaline

GABA

inhibitory

Glutamate

information and learning

Localization of Function

researcher's attempts to identify the function of each individual brain area (but areas likely work together to produce our perceptions)

Forebrain (including cerebral cortex)

the site of most of the brain's conscious functions; containins the cerebral cortex, the thalamus, and the limbic system,among other structures

Corpus Callosum

bundle of nerve fibers connecting the cerebrum's two hemispheres

Thalamus

area that relays nerve signals to the cerebral cortex; sensory gateway

Hypothalamus

forebrain structure that regulates sexual motivation and behavior and a number of homeostatic processes; serves as an interface between the nervous system and the endocrine system

Cerebellum

hindbrain structure that controls our balance, coordination, movement, and motor skills, andit is thought to be important in processing some types of memory

Brain Stem

regulates control of involuntary functions, breathing, heart rate

Frontal Lobe

part of the cerebral cortex; involved in motor function, language, memory, and executive function

Motor Cortex

voluntary movement

Prefrontal Cortex

area in the frontal lobe responsible for higher-level cognitive functioning; thinking, planning, language, etc.

Broca's Area

language production

Parietal Lobe

somatosensory cortex: touch, pressure, pain information; spatial perception; object shape/orientation; integrates vision and touch input w/ motor output

Temporal Lobe

hearing, understanding language, autobiographical memories

Wernicke's Area

understanding speech

Occipital Lobe

visual cortex: vision

The Limbic System

emotional center

Amygdala

threat sensor (sometimes hippocampus)

Midbrain

contains limbic system

Reticular Activating System (RAS)

regulates cortical arousal

Hindbrain (brainstem)

division of the brain containing the medulla, pons, and cerebellum

Medulla

regulation of critical functions (heart rate, breathing, etc.)