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Adolescent psych, Emily Merz, final exam fall 2024
puberty
multifaceted set of bodily changes which include a rapid acceleration in physical growth and the development of primary & secondary sex characteristics
puberty trigger
increases in sex hormone levels (estrogen, androgens - testosterone)
hypothalamic - pituitary - gonadal axis
monitors and adjusts levels of sex hormones
adrenarche
marks the beginning of sexual maturation (in children), is characterized by the maturation of the adrenal glands (make and release androgens). causes the development of some secondary sex characteristics, along with lots of cortisol
hormonal activity before birth
organizing role: prenatal hormones ‘program’ the brain to develop in sex-differentiate ways
activating role: increasing hormones at puberty activate physical changes
“sleeper effect”
delayed impacts, especially from hormonal activity before birth which organizes & activates puberty timing
effects of hormonal changes of puberty on the body
more adult-like physical appearance, rapid physical growth, sexual maturation
girls in puberty
reach peak increases in height & weight around age 11.5; body fat increases more than muscle. increased estradiol (main estrogen)
boys in puberty
reach peak increases in height & weight around age 13.5; muscle & body fat increases. increased testosterone (androgen)
primary sex characteristics
changes in reproductive organs (eggs, sperm)
secondary sex characteristics
visible physical changes but aren’t directly linked to reproduction
puberty impacts on body image
girls are more prone to developing negative body image compared to boys, probably due to increases in body fat
puberty impacts on mood
puberty contributes to moodiness and increases in anxiety & depression
delayed phase preference
timing of secretion of melatonin shifts later during puberty
secular trend
the tendency, over the past two centuries, for individuals to be larger in stature and to reach puberty earlier, primarily because of improvements in health and nutrition
precocious puberty
onset of puberty at 8 or younger in girls & 9 or younger in boys. especially negative impacts for girls
developmental readiness hypothesis
younger adolescents are less ready to cope with the challenge of puberty compared to older ones
maturational deviance hypothesis
adolescents who stand apart from their peers in physical appearance may experience more distress compared to those who blend in more easily
executive function
higher level cognitive skills which facilitate flexible, goal-directed behavior. associated with prefrontal cortex growth.
3 components of executive function
inhibitory control; working memory; cognitive flexibility
inhibitory control
suppressing an inappropriate, habitual, or unwanted response
working memory
holding and updating info in one’s mind for a short time
cognitive flexibility
the ability to shift between cognitive strategies when completing a task
social cognitive skills
enable individuals to understand & interact with one another. theory of mind fits into this concept
theory of mind
the ability to understand that others have beliefs, intentions, and knowledge that may differ from our own. with this, adolescents develop a more nuanced understanding of other people’s thoughts and feelings
perspective-taking task
adolescent must take into account the director/speaker’s perspective to complete tasks/move objects correctly. as adolescents mature cognitively, this produces dewer errors
understanding social conventions
adolescents begin to view social conventions as social expectations rather than requirements
why is adolescence a time of increased risk-taking?
often attributed to less mature self-regulatory skills, along with an under-developed prefrontal cortex
reward sensitivity, reward-seeking, and sensation seeking are higher during adolescence (compared to childhood & adulthood)
quality of adolescent decision-making declines under conditions of heightened rewards
go/no-go task
used to measure inhibitory control. participants press a button when they see (green) go stimulus, and withhold button with (red) no-go stimulus. adolescents perform just as well as adults
emotional go/no-go task
same go/no-go task, but using emotional facial expressions as stimuli (withholding response to neutral faces). adolescents have difficulty suppressing a response to positive social (reward) cues relative to neutral cues.
risky decision making during adolescence
due to the interaction of different brain regions (increased striatal responses which enhance reward sensitivity). the brain is affected by dopamine & serotonin, which makes an adolescent more emotional, responsive to stress, and sensitive to rewards
ventral striatum
critical for detecting and learning about reward cues. adolescents show enhanced activity here with positive emotional cues
adolescent egocentrism
this can lead to the imaginary audience and personal fable
Piagetian view on adolescent thinking
cognitive-developmental view of intellectual development in distinct stages
sensorimotor period: birth - 2yo
preoperational period: 2 - 5yo
concrete operations: 6 - early adolescence
formal operations: adolescence - adulthood
information-processing view of cognition
explains cognitive development in terms of growth of specific components of the thinking process (attention, memory, speed, organization)
social redefinition
adolescents cease to be viewed as children and come to be recognized as adults in society. defined by increases in rights, privileges, and responsibilities
continuous social transitions
gradual transitions; includes most traditional cultures with hands-on experience, observations, and slowly taking on new roles
discontinuous social transitions
abrupt transitions; often seen in contemporary society where adolescents are given little preparation and are faced with big changes
inventionist perspective on adolescence
created during the industrial revolution because many societal changes occurred during this time
child protectionists
individuals who argued, early in the 20th century, that adolescents needed to be kept out of the workforce to protect them from the hazards of the workplace
elongation of adolescence
puberty starts earlier and the period of adolescence lasts longer today than in the past
changes in the parent-child relationship during adolescence
tend to fight about mundane things. parents view issues in terms of right/wrong but teens view issues as matters of personal choice
when is parent-adolescent conflict heightened?
early-middle adolescence. mor harmonious during middle-late adolescence
parental demandingness
degree to which parents expect & insist on mature, responsible behavior from the child
parental responsiveness
degree to which the parent responds to the child’s needs in an accepting, supportive manner
authoritarian parenting
high demandingness & low responsiveness. parents use punitive, absolute, forceful discipline. strong emphasis on obedience and conformity
authoritative parenting
high demandingness & high responsiveness. parents use warmth, firm control, rational, issue-oriented discipline, emphasis on development of self-direction
indulgent/permissive parenting
high responsiveness & low demandingness. parent is concerns with child’s happiness over rule following. few guidelines, nondirective, few rules
indifferent parenting
low responsiveness & low demandingness. the parent is very adult-centered, passive, and dismissive of child’s needs. poor communication, withdrawn
marital conflict family stress model of economic hardship
family economic hardship —> parental stress —> negative parenting —> adolescent difficulties
diathesis-stress model
interaction between predisposition (diathesis) and environmental trigger (stress) leads to a negative outcome. often used to explain MI
differential susceptibility theory
the same genetic tendencies that made an individual especially susceptible to develop problems when exposed to adverse environmental influences also make them especially likely to thrive when exposed to environmental influences
family systems theory
perspective on family functioning that emphasizes interconnections among different family relationships
familism
orientation toward life where needs of one’s family take precedence over the needs of the individual. folks with this attitude are more likely to be prosocial & have better MH
generational dissonance
divergence of views between adolescents & parents that is common in families of immigrant parents & American-born adolescents
transformations in family relationships
adolescents begin to feel more independent & parents can be hesitant to give more independence. family conflict has been proven to worsen teens MH problems/emotional distress
adolescents & divorce
impact on adolescents isn’t too strong (less than during childhood). quality of relationships adolescent has with adults is more important than number of parents. more adversely affected when marital conflict is obvious > hidden
economic stress & poverty outcomes
more anxiety & depression, less prosocial behavior, worse school performance
cliques
form due to common activities or friendship. small groups that range from 2-12 people (avg 5-6)
crowds
large group of peers, based mainly on reputation. serve as reference groups against which individuals can compare themselves. provide input to form self-concepts, and opinions about others & themself
how does crowd membership affect adolescent behavior?
adolescents often imitate crowd leaders; strive to follow crowd’s social norms. reinforced for behaving in ways that are consistent with the norms - leads to further incorporating crowd membership into their identity
changes in crowds across adolescence
over the course of adolescence, crowd structure becomes more differentiated and permeable. become less important towards late adolescence
instrumental/proactive aggression
deliberate, planned, selective aggression. can increase popularity
reactive aggression
unplanned and impulsive. can lead to being less liked by peers
relational aggression
acts intended to harm another via deliberate manipulation of their social standing & relationships. can lead to high levels of psychological distress, anxiety, and depression (especially for girls)
perceived popularity
how much status/prestige an individual has. highly variable across contexts
sociometric popularity
how well-liked an individual actually is
peer rejection
main source of stress for adolescents
selection
individuals attributes lead them to have certain environmental experiences. responsible for similarities between friends & influences
socialization
environmental factors lead to individual attributes and behavior. responsible for similarities between friends & influences
supportive classroom climate
teachers are responsive & demanding. better academic achievement
school transitions
grades, engagement, and academic motivation tend to drop. standardized test scores tend to stay the same.
student engagement
supportive school climates are associated with higher academic achievement & good parental involvement is associated with positive outcomes
adolescents working long hours
found to interfere with school and relationships. associated with increases in aggression, school misconduct, precocious sexual activity, minor delinquency, substance use
unstructured & unsupervised time with peers
associated with depression, delinquency, substance use, violence, precocious sexual activity
positive youth development programs
after-school programs focused on helping adolescents develop strengths. based on competence, confidence, connection, character, compassion (5C’s)
uses & gratifications approach
perspective on media use that emphasizes the active role users play in selecting the media to which they are exposed
use of social media for social comparison & feedback-seeking
higher depressive symptoms —> more frequent use of social media for comparison purposes —> increases in anxiety & depression
self-conception
traits & attributes that individuals use to describe themselves. grows alongside abstract thinking - increased ability to process large amounts of info. becomes more differentiated in specific situations
direct appraisal
derived from our own reactions to past events & experiences. a source to build a self-concept
reflected appraisal
our beliefs about how we are seen by others. a source to build a self-concept. aka looking glass self
changes in self-esteem
doesn’t plunge during adolescence. compared to older adolescents, early & middle have lower self-esteem. fluctuates a lot day-to-day. can be domain specific
diffusion identity status
the individual doesn’t have firm commitments & isn’t currently trying to make them (not exploring options in terms of identity)
foreclosure identity status
committing to an identity without a period of exploration. roles often revolve around goals set by parents/other authority figures
moratorium identity status
period of exploration, actively trying out different identities. have not yet committed to an identity
achievement identity status
a strong sense of identity. individual has gone through a period of exploration & made a commitment
multidimensional model of racial/ethnic identity
consists of racial/ethnic centrality, private regard, and public regard
racial/ethnic centrality
how important race/ethnicity is in defining identity
private regard
how individuals feel about being a member of their race/ethnicity
public regard
how individuals think others feel about their race/ethnicity
individuation
gradual increases in one’s sense of self as autonomous & separate from one’s parents. doesn’t necessarily involve high levels of stress or turmoil
emotional autonomy
establishing more adult-like and less child-like close relationships with family members & peers
behavioral autonomy
the capacity to make independent decisions
improved decision making
caused by improved self-control & impulse control skills + decreased influence of potential immediate rewards
independent decision making in the peer context
susceptibility to this influence is greater during the first half of adolescence than later. young adults conform more to peers (most peer influence is from 12-14)
adolescents characterize friendships by…
sharing, helping, common activities (same as children). self-disclosure, similar attitudes & values, loyalty
rejection sensitivity
the tendency to expect, perceive, and overreact to rejection by others (in later romantic relationships). associated with early attachment insecurity
hormonal influences on sexual activity in boys
increases in androgens directly relate to the likelihood of becoming sexually active (androgens increase sex drive and change physical appearance)
hormonal influences on sexual activity in girls
androgens increase sex drive. estrogens are mostly responsible for changes in physical appearance (so estrogens are correlated with sexual activity)
minority stress theory
LGBTQ+ identity —> increased exposure to stressors —> increased risk for MH problems
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