CSU PSY465 final exam

Adolescent psych, Emily Merz, final exam fall 2024

puberty

multifaceted set of bodily changes which include a rapid acceleration in physical growth and the development of primary & secondary sex characteristics

puberty trigger

increases in sex hormone levels (estrogen, androgens - testosterone)

hypothalamic - pituitary - gonadal axis

monitors and adjusts levels of sex hormones

adrenarche

marks the beginning of sexual maturation (in children), is characterized by the maturation of the adrenal glands (make and release androgens). causes the development of some secondary sex characteristics, along with lots of cortisol

hormonal activity before birth

• organizing role: prenatal hormones ‘program’ the brain to develop in sex-differentiate ways

• activating role: increasing hormones at puberty activate physical changes

“sleeper effect”

delayed impacts, especially from hormonal activity before birth which organizes & activates puberty timing

effects of hormonal changes of puberty on the body

more adult-like physical appearance, rapid physical growth, sexual maturation

girls in puberty

reach peak increases in height & weight around age 11.5; body fat increases more than muscle. increased estradiol (main estrogen)

boys in puberty

reach peak increases in height & weight around age 13.5; muscle & body fat increases. increased testosterone (androgen)

primary sex characteristics

changes in reproductive organs (eggs, sperm)

secondary sex characteristics

visible physical changes but aren’t directly linked to reproduction

puberty impacts on body image

girls are more prone to developing negative body image compared to boys, probably due to increases in body fat

puberty impacts on mood

puberty contributes to moodiness and increases in anxiety & depression

delayed phase preference

timing of secretion of melatonin shifts later during puberty

secular trend

the tendency, over the past two centuries, for individuals to be larger in stature and to reach puberty earlier, primarily because of improvements in health and nutrition

precocious puberty

onset of puberty at 8 or younger in girls & 9 or younger in boys. especially negative impacts for girls

developmental readiness hypothesis

younger adolescents are less ready to cope with the challenge of puberty compared to older ones

maturational deviance hypothesis

adolescents who stand apart from their peers in physical appearance may experience more distress compared to those who blend in more easily

executive function

higher level cognitive skills which facilitate flexible, goal-directed behavior. associated with prefrontal cortex growth.

3 components of executive function

inhibitory control; working memory; cognitive flexibility

inhibitory control

suppressing an inappropriate, habitual, or unwanted response

working memory

holding and updating info in one’s mind for a short time

cognitive flexibility

the ability to shift between cognitive strategies when completing a task

social cognitive skills

enable individuals to understand & interact with one another. theory of mind fits into this concept

theory of mind

the ability to understand that others have beliefs, intentions, and knowledge that may differ from our own. with this, adolescents develop a more nuanced understanding of other people’s thoughts and feelings

perspective-taking task

adolescent must take into account the director/speaker’s perspective to complete tasks/move objects correctly. as adolescents mature cognitively, this produces dewer errors

understanding social conventions

adolescents begin to view social conventions as social expectations rather than requirements

why is adolescence a time of increased risk-taking?

• often attributed to less mature self-regulatory skills, along with an under-developed prefrontal cortex

• reward sensitivity, reward-seeking, and sensation seeking are higher during adolescence (compared to childhood & adulthood)

• quality of adolescent decision-making declines under conditions of heightened rewards

go/no-go task

used to measure inhibitory control. participants press a button when they see (green) go stimulus, and withhold button with (red) no-go stimulus. adolescents perform just as well as adults

emotional go/no-go task

same go/no-go task, but using emotional facial expressions as stimuli (withholding response to neutral faces). adolescents have difficulty suppressing a response to positive social (reward) cues relative to neutral cues.

risky decision making during adolescence

due to the interaction of different brain regions (increased striatal responses which enhance reward sensitivity). the brain is affected by dopamine & serotonin, which makes an adolescent more emotional, responsive to stress, and sensitive to rewards

ventral striatum

critical for detecting and learning about reward cues. adolescents show enhanced activity here with positive emotional cues

adolescent egocentrism

this can lead to the imaginary audience and personal fable

Piagetian view on adolescent thinking

cognitive-developmental view of intellectual development in distinct stages

• sensorimotor period: birth - 2yo

• preoperational period: 2 - 5yo

• concrete operations: 6 - early adolescence

• formal operations: adolescence - adulthood

information-processing view of cognition

explains cognitive development in terms of growth of specific components of the thinking process (attention, memory, speed, organization)

social redefinition

adolescents cease to be viewed as children and come to be recognized as adults in society. defined by increases in rights, privileges, and responsibilities

continuous social transitions

gradual transitions; includes most traditional cultures with hands-on experience, observations, and slowly taking on new roles

discontinuous social transitions

abrupt transitions; often seen in contemporary society where adolescents are given little preparation and are faced with big changes

inventionist perspective on adolescence

created during the industrial revolution because many societal changes occurred during this time

child protectionists

individuals who argued, early in the 20^th century, that adolescents needed to be kept out of the workforce to protect them from the hazards of the workplace

elongation of adolescence

puberty starts earlier and the period of adolescence lasts longer today than in the past

changes in the parent-child relationship during adolescence

tend to fight about mundane things. parents view issues in terms of right/wrong but teens view issues as matters of personal choice

when is parent-adolescent conflict heightened?

early-middle adolescence. mor harmonious during middle-late adolescence

parental demandingness

degree to which parents expect & insist on mature, responsible behavior from the child

parental responsiveness

degree to which the parent responds to the child’s needs in an accepting, supportive manner

authoritarian parenting

high demandingness & low responsiveness. parents use punitive, absolute, forceful discipline. strong emphasis on obedience and conformity

authoritative parenting

high demandingness & high responsiveness. parents use warmth, firm control, rational, issue-oriented discipline, emphasis on development of self-direction

indulgent/permissive parenting

high responsiveness & low demandingness. parent is concerns with child’s happiness over rule following. few guidelines, nondirective, few rules

indifferent parenting

low responsiveness & low demandingness. the parent is very adult-centered, passive, and dismissive of child’s needs. poor communication, withdrawn

marital conflict family stress model of economic hardship

family economic hardship —> parental stress —> negative parenting —> adolescent difficulties

diathesis-stress model

interaction between predisposition (diathesis) and environmental trigger (stress) leads to a negative outcome. often used to explain MI

differential susceptibility theory

the same genetic tendencies that made an individual especially susceptible to develop problems when exposed to adverse environmental influences also make them especially likely to thrive when exposed to environmental influences

family systems theory

perspective on family functioning that emphasizes interconnections among different family relationships

familism

orientation toward life where needs of one’s family take precedence over the needs of the individual. folks with this attitude are more likely to be prosocial & have better MH

generational dissonance

divergence of views between adolescents & parents that is common in families of immigrant parents & American-born adolescents

transformations in family relationships

adolescents begin to feel more independent & parents can be hesitant to give more independence. family conflict has been proven to worsen teens MH problems/emotional distress

adolescents & divorce

impact on adolescents isn’t too strong (less than during childhood). quality of relationships adolescent has with adults is more important than number of parents. more adversely affected when marital conflict is obvious > hidden

economic stress & poverty outcomes

more anxiety & depression, less prosocial behavior, worse school performance

cliques

form due to common activities or friendship. small groups that range from 2-12 people (avg 5-6)

crowds

large group of peers, based mainly on reputation. serve as reference groups against which individuals can compare themselves. provide input to form self-concepts, and opinions about others & themself

how does crowd membership affect adolescent behavior?

adolescents often imitate crowd leaders; strive to follow crowd’s social norms. reinforced for behaving in ways that are consistent with the norms - leads to further incorporating crowd membership into their identity

changes in crowds across adolescence

over the course of adolescence, crowd structure becomes more differentiated and permeable. become less important towards late adolescence

instrumental/proactive aggression

deliberate, planned, selective aggression. can increase popularity

reactive aggression

unplanned and impulsive. can lead to being less liked by peers

relational aggression

acts intended to harm another via deliberate manipulation of their social standing & relationships. can lead to high levels of psychological distress, anxiety, and depression (especially for girls)

perceived popularity

how much status/prestige an individual has. highly variable across contexts

sociometric popularity

how well-liked an individual actually is

peer rejection

main source of stress for adolescents

selection

individuals attributes lead them to have certain environmental experiences. responsible for similarities between friends & influences

socialization

environmental factors lead to individual attributes and behavior. responsible for similarities between friends & influences

supportive classroom climate

teachers are responsive & demanding. better academic achievement

school transitions

grades, engagement, and academic motivation tend to drop. standardized test scores tend to stay the same.

student engagement

supportive school climates are associated with higher academic achievement & good parental involvement is associated with positive outcomes

adolescents working long hours

found to interfere with school and relationships. associated with increases in aggression, school misconduct, precocious sexual activity, minor delinquency, substance use

unstructured & unsupervised time with peers

associated with depression, delinquency, substance use, violence, precocious sexual activity

positive youth development programs

after-school programs focused on helping adolescents develop strengths. based on competence, confidence, connection, character, compassion (5C’s)

uses & gratifications approach

perspective on media use that emphasizes the active role users play in selecting the media to which they are exposed

use of social media for social comparison & feedback-seeking

higher depressive symptoms —> more frequent use of social media for comparison purposes —> increases in anxiety & depression

self-conception

traits & attributes that individuals use to describe themselves. grows alongside abstract thinking - increased ability to process large amounts of info. becomes more differentiated in specific situations

direct appraisal

derived from our own reactions to past events & experiences. a source to build a self-concept

reflected appraisal

our beliefs about how we are seen by others. a source to build a self-concept. aka looking glass self

changes in self-esteem

doesn’t plunge during adolescence. compared to older adolescents, early & middle have lower self-esteem. fluctuates a lot day-to-day. can be domain specific

diffusion identity status

the individual doesn’t have firm commitments & isn’t currently trying to make them (not exploring options in terms of identity)

foreclosure identity status

committing to an identity without a period of exploration. roles often revolve around goals set by parents/other authority figures

moratorium identity status

period of exploration, actively trying out different identities. have not yet committed to an identity

achievement identity status

a strong sense of identity. individual has gone through a period of exploration & made a commitment

multidimensional model of racial/ethnic identity

consists of racial/ethnic centrality, private regard, and public regard

racial/ethnic centrality

how important race/ethnicity is in defining identity

private regard

how individuals feel about being a member of their race/ethnicity

public regard

how individuals think others feel about their race/ethnicity

individuation

gradual increases in one’s sense of self as autonomous & separate from one’s parents. doesn’t necessarily involve high levels of stress or turmoil

emotional autonomy

establishing more adult-like and less child-like close relationships with family members & peers

behavioral autonomy

the capacity to make independent decisions

improved decision making

caused by improved self-control & impulse control skills + decreased influence of potential immediate rewards

independent decision making in the peer context

susceptibility to this influence is greater during the first half of adolescence than later. young adults conform more to peers (most peer influence is from 12-14)

adolescents characterize friendships by…

sharing, helping, common activities (same as children). self-disclosure, similar attitudes & values, loyalty

rejection sensitivity

the tendency to expect, perceive, and overreact to rejection by others (in later romantic relationships). associated with early attachment insecurity

hormonal influences on sexual activity in boys

increases in androgens directly relate to the likelihood of becoming sexually active (androgens increase sex drive and change physical appearance)

hormonal influences on sexual activity in girls

androgens increase sex drive. estrogens are mostly responsible for changes in physical appearance (so estrogens are correlated with sexual activity)

minority stress theory

LGBTQ+ identity —> increased exposure to stressors —> increased risk for MH problems