history test on a bunch of random slides of useless information about like every single country for you to cram your brain with cuz the test is on monday

Shift in attitude after 1850

before 1850 the attitude toward life was romanticism, after it was realpolitik

Realpolitik

system of politics or principles based on practical rather than moral or ideological considerations

Prince-President Louis Napoleon

the Revolution of 1848 gave him the opportunity to return to France and run for president as a "champion of order", on December 20, 1848 he was sworn in as the first president of France, called "the Small" bc many thought his success was due only to his famous name, later became called Napoleon III

Coup d'etat of 1851

Under the Constitution of 1848 the president could not serve two consecutive (4 yr) terms, so on December 2, 1851 Napoleon III had the army occupy the Legislative Hall and arrested leading members, had constitution revised to give the head of state "free and unfettered authority"

(dictatorship in disguise), more uprisings followed

French troops sent to Rome under Louis Napoleon

to restore the Pope's authority and maintain order during the 1849 Roman Republic.

international goals of Napoleon III

wanted to free France from the restrictions of the peace settlement of 1814-15 and make France the arbiter of Europe

domestic accomplishments of Napoleon III

government clearly authoritarian, controlled armed forces, police, and civil service, legislative corps could not initiate legislation, affect the budget, or declare war

what Napoleon III wanted to be for the people

he tried to be "all things to all people"

industrial growth and economy under Napoleon III

socialist, thought government should be used to stimulate the national economy, subsidized industrial growth

International Exposition of 1855

followed London's Great Exhibition of 1851, attempted to surpass the Crystal Palace

Paris reclaimed its place as the cultural and intellectual capital of Europe and advertised products of France to the world

Baron Haussmann's improvements to Paris

no more narrow streets and old city walls, made broad boulevards, spacious buildings, circular plazas, public squares

underground sewage system, public water supply, gaslights

military purpose and benefit of wider roads in Paris

made it more difficult to throw up barricades and easier for troops to move rapidly through the city to put down revolts

result of opposition against Napoleon III's socialist policies

made liberal reforms in gov to gain support of middle class, modified dictatorial powers, gave legislature more control, tried to grow support of working class, after more demands the assembly was permitted to introduce legislation and vote on a budget and the constitution was amended to give Legislature almost total control

1815-1854 (39 yrs) no wars

A new generation grew up that had no personal memories of battles in war so the misery of war was forgotten and the glories magnified, Napoleon III knew that a military campaign would gratify French vanity and consolidate his regime, Crimean War kept him afloat politically but disaster of Franco-Prussian war in 1870 would be his undoing bro what the actual heck is slide 15 makes zero sense

chief beneficiaries of the crumbling Ottoman Empire

After Siege of Vienna in 1683, HRE succeeded in pushing Turks out of Hungary, Transilvania, Croatia, and Slovenia

Russia seized Crimea and Bessarabia and invaded and then became a protectorate of Moldavia and Wallachia

Nationalist revolts led to Serbian and Greek independence 1830

Crimean War

France and Russia claimed vague rights to watch over the Christian minorities in the Turkish Empire, Russia demanded sole right to protect Christian Shrines in Palestine, Turks declared war on Russia

Balance of Power

Britain, France, and Austria became concerned about the balance of power in the region and Russian expansion

Austria wanted to expand territory into Balkans, feared Russia’s growing power

Britain feared Russia would seize the Dardanelles which would challenge their naval control

Britain and France both wanted to expand commercial opportunities in the Near East and establish naval bases on the eastern Mediterranean coast aggghhhhhhhhhhhhhhh

Czar Nicholas I

negotiated secret treaties with Austria and Britain for the partition of Turkey

secret treaties

Napoleon III warned British that the French would occupy Belgium as compensation if Russia, Britain, and Austria divided Turkey

Britain suddenly reversed its position and allied with France

Britain and France declared war on Russia on March 28, 1854

Russia looked to Austria for support in exchange for aid but Austria remained officially neutral

Charge of the Light Brigade

Written orders to British light cavalry during the Battle of Balaclava were to hold off the Russians, Miscommunicated orally to a full frontal assault, 600 troops of the brigade followed ambiguous orders although they knew they had very little chance of survival.

end of Crimean War

Tsar Nicholas I died of Typhus in March 1855

Tsar Alexander II sought a peace treaty after Austria threatened to join coalition

Treaty of Paris

The Black Sea was neutralized, Sultan Abdulmecid I promised reforms, Turkey admitted into the Concert of European states

Checked Russian expansion temporarily in the Balkans

Outcome of the Crimean War

Destroyed the Concert of Europe

Austria was alone bc earlier maintained status quo with Russia

now considered an enemy bc did not come to Russia’s aid

Russia was defeated and withdrew from European affairs for the next two decades

Great Britain was let down by its role in the war and pulled back from Continental affairs bro i actually cant do thisssss

International Red Cross

crimean war showed how poor army hospitals were, paved the way for

Geneva Convention

said that Red Cross hospitals and similar agencies should have protection according to neutrals

First Italian War of Independence

King Charles Albert declared war on Austria

Initially supported by the Papal States and Naples

Austria defeated the army of Charles Albert and reconquered Lombardy and Milan, became a popular war

Giuseppe Garibaldi

General who fought for independence of Brazil and Uruguay,

soldiers known as Red Shirts, marched on Rome and drove out Pius IX, Mazzini set up a republic in Rome

“Wherever we may be, there will Rome be”

Victor Emmanuel II made peace with Austria

Louis Napoleon sent troops to Rome to reinstate Pius IX

Garibaldi and his soldiers retreated from Rome

Italy was once again divided and helpless bc needed a unified plan and leadership

Mazzini’s idea of a unitarian, democratic republic and the idea of a federation under the Pope didn't appeal to Italians

Count Camillo di Cavour

Victor Emmanuel I's prime minister who was a liberal minded

and wealthy businessman, pursued a policy of economic expansion

reasons why the revolutionaries failed according to Cavour

He was convinced that Italians could not expel Austria without help

failed bc too romantic, overvalued enthusiasm and undervalued material forces

Demanded from the Italian people nobility, courage, and unselfishness they did not possess

It would have been better to bribe opponents

Alienated many cautious and conservative people

Cavour's Secret Treaty with France

Cavour made a secret treaty with Napoleon III

France would support Piedmont against Austria

Piedmont territory would expand into Upper Italy

France would get Nice and Savoy

Kingdom in central Italy would be created for Napoleon’s cousin who would be married to Victor Emmanuel's daughter

Napoleon essentially would control Italy but Austria had to start the fight

result of Cavour's Secret Treaty with France

Piedmont provoked Austria into invading

Austria defeated by French army

Prussia began mobilizing in support of Austria

France became alarmed and made a treaty with Austria w/o Cavour, who wanted Piedmont to continue fighting, then Cavour resigned

Parma, Modena, Tuscany, and part of Papal States revolted and drove out their princes

French army remained in Rome to protect the Pope

Garibaldi Makes His Move

Revolutionaries revolt against Bourbon king in Sicily, Garibaldi’s Redshirts conquered Sicily, then moved to take Naples - then Rome

Cavour did not support Garibaldi, King Victor Emmanuel II led an army down to Naples (avoiding Rome) to help Garibaldi

Victor Emmanuel's coronation and its result

March 17, 1861 he was proclaimed King of Italy, but unification still not complete bc Venetia was still under Austrian control and Rome was under Papal control

Austro-Prussian War or Seven Weeks’ War

Garibaldi came out of retirement to lead an army as part of an alliance with Prussia, Italians suffered huge defeats

Ultimately, Prussians defeated Austria

Pope Pius IX 's refusal to surrender

Forced occupation made Catholics mad

Cavour had wanted to leave the pope alone

Garibaldi hated the pope and marched on Rome but was defeated and taken prisoner

France needs to weaken before Italians could take Rome

Franco-Prussian War

French army was withdrawn from Rome, Victor Emmanuel urged Pius IX to accept Italian sovereignty but he refused

Victor Emmanuel breached the city, later on February 3, 1871 Rome was declared the capital of Italy

Pontificate and teachings of Pope Pius IX

opposed socialism and representative government, secular education, separation of Church and state, he rejected the Law of Guarantees that promised special privileges to the Pope, Popes remained “prisoners of the Vatican”, later Papacy recognized the state of Italy with Rome as its capital, Italy recognized papal rule over Vatican City and independence of the pope

Doctrinal Teachings

Dec 8, 1854 - Dogma of the Immaculate Conception

Syllabus of Errors 1864 - condemned propositions associated with pantheism, naturalism, rationalism, indifferentism, socialism, communism, or freemasonry

Papal Infallibility proclaimed at the First Vatican Council

Prussia vs Austria for control of Germany

Austria had controlled German Confederation, but Prussian power had grown bc it had a strong economy due to Zollverein (customs union)

Prussian Liberalism

in 1848 Prussia had a constitution and legislature with 2 houses

Landtag - “Lower House” elected by universal manhood suffrage but by 1859 the lower house was in the hands of the wealthy middle class

Military appropriations bill 1862

would double the army and require 3-year mandatory service

Landtag opposed the bill bc it was too expensive and they feared it would be used by govt to teach obedience to monarchy

Otto von Bismarck

Born into the Junker class, learned how to assess the character of rulers, from 1862-66 he ruled by ignoring Parliament, strategy was to make sure Prussia would only fight one power at a time and that opponent would be isolated

Danish War (1863)

Denmark moved to add the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein into its territories, Prussia and Austria declared war and defeated the Danes, Prussia took Holstein and Austria took Schleswig

Bismarck's move to isolate Austria

needed to get other powers to agree to not interfere

Russia agreed since Prussia had supported Russia in the Polish revolt, France agrees with vague promises of territory,

Italy agrees with promise to acquire Venetia if Austria defeated

‘Seven Weeks’ War (June 14-Aug 23)

Prussia had military superiority bc they had breech-loading needle guns with a faster rate of fire than Austrian muzzleloader and also had a better network of railroads to amass troops quickly

Treaty of Prague (1866)

dissolved the German Confederation,

Northern Confederation controlled by Prussia, mostly Protestant, comprised ⅔ of German lands

Southern Confederation, largely Catholic, remained independent but forced to sign military agreements with Prussia

Result: Bismarck got Austria out of German affairs

The Iron Chancellor

After war, the Landtag retroactively approved Bismarck’s actions, Bismarck was named Chancellor

learned that a strong army was crucial,

Nationalism and Authoritarian Government could be combined, nationalism could be used to win liberal support and prevent govt reforms, separation of Nationalism and Liberalism = Authoritarian Nationalism

new goals were to unite the North and South German Confederations and to isolate France aggghhhh idkkkkkkkkkkk

The Ems Telegram

Prince Leopold Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was offered the throne of Spain but he is a distant cousin of Prussian king which was a problem, King William I of Prussia told Leopold to refuse, France sent a telegram to King William at Ems but Bismarck edited the return telegram to make it look like William had insulted the French ambassador, France were outraged so they declared war

result of Franco-Prussian War

At Sedan, the entire French army and Napoleon III were captured and the Second French Empire collapsed

Paris held out for 4 months but finally surrendered on January 28, 1871, France had to give up Alsace-Lorraine

Unification of Germany

January 18, 1871, Germany had been merged into Prussia, not Prussia into Germany resulting in stronger Prussia

New balance of power in Europe

German Government

Federal system with a bicameral legislature, Bundesrat = upper represented 25 states, Reichstag = lower, Emperor/Bismarck controlled the legislature and military, all for German strength, not domination

National Liberal Party

held the majority in the Reichstag and initially resisted Bismarck's military initiatives

Religion and Politics in Germany

Bismarck saw Catholics as a threat, Conservatives = Prussia is Protestant, Liberals = anti-Catholic, Nationalists = wanted one Germany with one religion, all questioned Catholic loyalty to new Germany

Catholic Centre Party (1870-today)

Kulturkampf - “Culture struggle”

had goals of reducing the influence of the Vatican in German affairs, strengthening the position of the Lutheran Church in the Prussian state, establishing state authority over education and ecclesiastical appointments

Pulpit Law made it illegal for sermons to be political, the state took over all schools

May Laws made state regulation of clergy, all Prussian Bishops and many priests arrested, Jesuits kicked out of Prussia noooooooooooooooooo I cant do thissssss

Bismark's conservative ideas

Bismarck eventually sees that Catholics are not a threat, socialism is, especially the Social Democratic Party founded in 1869, later there was a Anti Socialist law passed outlawing Socialist Democratic Party, Bismark abandoned laissez-faire policies of the Liberals to protect German industries

Bismark's social reforms

in 1881 he enacted social welfare legislation and labor reforms to woo workers away from the Social Democrats

Collapse of 2nd French Empire and its result

came with downfall of Napoleon III at Sedan

Republicans set up a provisional govt, Bismarck intervened, Monarchists won 400 out of 650 seats in the new National Assembly, Radical republicans reacted by setting an independent govt in Paris called the Commune, resulted in the enmity between middle and working classes deepening

Third French Republic

Monarchists vote for a new king, but disputed throne bc there were two candidates, tried to make a compromise but it failed, Henry demanded that the tricolor flag be abandoned, temporary Third Republic declared, in 1875 Constitutional Laws were passed making a de facto Republic which would last 65 years until WWII

The Austrian Empire

After Revolutions of 1848-1849, return to the status quo, lasting results of revolution included the emancipation of the serfs and the elimination of all compulsory labor services, Impact of Industrialization after 1850 included the growth of working class, labor unrest, and a new industrial middle class,

Hungary was subjected to rule of military officers,

Catholic Church was declared the state church and given control of education

The Ausgleich (1867)

Hungary was given charge over domestic affairs, Dominated by Magyars, compromise made creating Dual Monarchy: Austrian Emperor Francis Joseph with two capitals, Vienna and Budapest, Bosnia-Herzegovina would be administered by both Vienna and Budapest

government of Austria and Hungary

Austria was theoretically a constitutional monarchy but in reality it was an autocracy, Parliament system with the principle of Ministerial responsibility which Emperor Franz Josef largely ignored, Hungary already had a working parliamentary system

and was controlled by Magyar landowners

The Balkan Problem

Ethnic tensions included Nationalism and Pan-slavism (Russia)

Austria made concessions to national minorities but

Alienated the pro-German aristocracy and bureaucracy

Hungary had systematic Magyarization and the Magyar language imposed on all schools and was the official language

Serbia's goal was to unite the Yugoslavs into one kingdom and so they turned to Russia for help

problems with Russian Serfdom

Nine-tenths of the land was owned by 100,000 noble families, their defeat in the Crimean War revealed their deficiencies, such as the fact the infantry was made up of uneducated serfs

who were unable to deal with complex machines and weapons of war

Russia was behind the West

Czar Alexander II

called the “Czar Liberator” for his many reforms, in 1861 he abolished serfdom, Govt bought land from nobility to give to serfs, landowners kept the best for themselves,

Peasants had to pay back the gov in long term installments

Village commune (mir) responsible for collecting payments, but in reality, the mir owned worthless land peasants were purchasing, would lead to Revolution in 1917.

Zemstvos

local assemblies created to ease strain on central beurachracy

Representatives elected from locals, responsible for public services, famine relief and bridge maintenance

Imperial Russian legal reforms

Provided regular system of local and provincial courts and judicial code, accepted the principle of equality before the law, relaxed censorship and travel, treated minorities fairly

1877-78 Russo-Turkish War

Intervened to help Bulgarian revolt against 480 yr. Ottoman rule (Called “Tsar Liberator of Russians and Bulgarians”),

Laid almost 14,000 miles of railroad tracks

Alexander Herzen

Russian exile living in London, his slogan was ‘‘Land and Freedom’’, believed the Russian peasant must be the chief instrument for social reform and the peasant village commune could serve as an independent, self-governing Body

Populism in Russia

Russian students and intellectuals followed Herzen’s ideas

and wanted to create a new society through the revolutionary acts of the peasants

Not So Peaceful Reform in Russia

Anarchism was popularized by Pierre Joseph Proudhon and taught that all institutions were evil, Nihilism taught that

society, government, and the Orthodox Church were tyrannical and corrupt and everything should be repudiated, Anarchism and Nihilism in action = Terrorism

Alexander III reactionary

Alexander II had been assassinated, Alexander III turned away from reform bc he equated liberalism with anarchism,

Centralization and autocracy increased

Russification

a form of cultural assimilation where non-Russians adopt Russian culture and language either voluntarily or by force, Pogroms (riots) erupted against Jews for 3 years

Liberal Party main accomplishment

free trade

Reform Act of 1832

increased representation for the industrial middle class

John Temple, Lord Palmerston

Whig Prime Minister

Prime minister for most of the period from 1855 to 1865

but opposed expanding the franchise

Benjamin Disraeli and the Reform Act of 1867

Benjamin Disraeli = conservative prime minister

Reform Act of 1867's purpose was to win over the newly enfranchised groups to the Conservative Party, lowered the monetary requirements for voting, plan backfired and newly enfranchised industrial workers helped produce a huge Liberal victory in 1868

William Gladstone

1868-1874 - First Liberal administration

Opened civil service positions to competitive exams rather than patronage and introduced the secret ballot for voting,

Education Act of 1870 attempted to make elementary schools available for all children, expanded the right to vote to agricultural workers, British system of gradual reform through parliamentary institutions had become the way of political life.

Ireland

Act of Union 1801 united the English and Irish Parliaments but the Irish resented absentee British landlords and burdensome rents, leading them to develop a strong national self-consciousness, Gladstone tried to appease with limited land reform, Liberals introduced two Home Rule bills in 1886 and 1893 but both failed, the Home Rule Act of 1914 finally passed but Irish Protestants in Ulster revolted against it, WWI then broke out

Industrialization on the Continent

Textile industry by 1870, industrialization in textiles was largely complete in Britain but had a long way to go on the continent, Railroads were the main cause of industrial growth with railroad track mileage increasing to almost 70,000, Britain still the leader of iron production, responsible for half the world’s pig iron, steam engine was increasingly used in textile, mining, and metallurgical industries

Improving markets bc of free trade and joint-stock investment banks

International tolls and tariffs were eliminated and waterways opened up by eliminating restrictive tolls, Joint-stock investment banks were encouraged by governments bc they

mobilized enormous capital resources for investment in business large business ventures

Karl Marx

influenced by Hegel at university, professed atheist

Friedrich Engels

Wrote "The Conditions of the Working Classes in England",

condemned "wage slavery"

Communist Manifesto

Marx and Engels joined the tiny group of German socialist revolutionaries called the Communist League, they had become enthusiastic advocates of the radical working class movement, which led to the publishing of the Communist Manifesto in Jan. 1848

Closing lines, “WORKING MEN OF ALL COUNTRIES, UNITE!”

Philosophical Roots of Marxism

French Revolution= revolution can totally restructure society

and later gave examples of socialism

German Idealism= Hegelianism and the idea of Dialectic, meaning everything evolves and all things in history is the result of clashes between antagonistic elements, Marx disagreed with Hegel’s idea that history is determined by ideas manifesting themselves in historical forces, he thought the course of history is determined by material forces

Hegel’s Dialectic Review

Everything exists in tension, Dialectic

Being → Becoming ← Nothingness

Thesis → Synthesis ← Antithesis

Marxism

All of history is “the history of class struggle”, oppressor vs. the oppressed, oppressors invented moral codes, religions, and the idea of God, to keep the poor down

All History Progresses Through Revolution

From the feudal classes of the Middle Ages (the Third Estate), the middle class or bourgeoisie began to emerge, The new oppressed class was the proletariat or industrial working class,

Bourgeoisie vs. Proletariat

Bourgeoisie are antagonists in the emerging class struggle

Marx predicted that proletariat would overthrow bourgeoisie masters and would then form a dictatorship to reorganize the means of production and a classless society would emerge

Das Kapital

written by Marx, said that Capitalism exploits the worker, proposed the labor theory of value, which said that a product's price should reflect time to make and the wages of the workers should reflect absolute productivity

International Working Men’s Association

aka the First International, included left-wing socialists, communists, anarchists, and social democrats, statist = an advocate of a political system in which the state has substantial control over social and economic affairs

Eduard Bernstein

proposed revision of Marxist Theory bc there were problems with Marxist Theory, including that the capitalist system had not broken down, the middle class was expanding and the proletariat was improving, class struggle no longer exists

Socialism would come about not through revolution, but through democratic means

Nationalism and Socialism

Marx and Engels had said that ‘‘the working men have no country’’, socialists sided with their own countries

Trade Unions

Workers formed trade (labor) unions to improve their working conditions, workers won the right to strike in the 1870s.

Strike - a refusal to work

A New Age of Science

Scientific revolution was more theoretical, Industrial revolution more practical, Beginning in the 1830s there were basic discoveries and technological improvements which led to a growing faith in science, which undermined religious faith and increased materialism

Thermodynamics

science of the relationship between heat and mechanical energy, used with steam engines

Dmitri Mendeleev

1869 Periodic table, provided the systematic foundation for the periodic law, atomic theory = classified all material elements on the basis of their atomic weights

Discoveries about electricity

Discovered electromagnetic induction, made a primitive generator called the faraday disc

Neanderthal discoveries

A partial skeleton was discovered during quarrying operations in the Neander Valley in Germany, recognized as a distinct species of human called homo neanderthalensis

Charles Darwin

Wrote "The Voyage of the Beagle" about his journey, in Galapagos Islands discovered variations of known species and unknown species of animals

Discarded notion of special creation and instead embraced theory that animals evolve over time and in response to environment, also developed theory of Natural Selection