Philosophers

Peirce

Moral knowledge is fallible and evolves through communal inquiry rather than fixed absolute truths.

Kant

Morality comes from acting out of duty according to universal laws and treating people as ends rather than means.

Nagel

Wartime morality depends on intentions and who is directly targeted, with strict limits on harming innocents.

Aristotle

The highest good is human flourishing achieved through rational activity and virtue found in the mean between extremes.

MacIntyre

Virtues gain meaning only within traditions and community practices; modern morality is fragmented without shared narratives.

Hursthouse

Virtuous action is determined by what a virtuous person would do, emphasizing character development over rules or outcomes.

Ben-Porath

Free speech in schools should be balanced with inclusion and equal participation to protect the learning environment.

Stengel

Speech has moral consequences and can harm dignity, especially for marginalized groups; ethical responsibility matters.

Chemerinsky & Gillman

Universities must protect even offensive speech to uphold viewpoint neutrality and preserve academic freedom.

Cudd & Jones

Sexism is structural and institutional, embedded in social and economic systems that disadvantage women.

Kate Manne

Misogyny is a system that polices and punishes women who break gender norms, rather than simple hatred.

Charlotte Perkins Gilman

Women’s oppression stems from economic dependence and socially constructed gender roles that restrict their freedom.