Lecture 7- stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination

What are stereotypes?

• Impressions of groups that people form by associating the group with particular characteristics

• Overgeneralised beliefs about the traits and attributes of a particular group

What is prejudice?

• Positive or negative evaluations of a social group or its members

• Involves judging an individual negatively, independent of actions

What is discrimination?

Positive or negative behaviour directed towards a social group or its members

What component of attitudes do stereotypes map on to (think ABC)?

• Cognitive

• Knowledge and beliefs

What component of attitudes does prejudice map on to (think ABC)?

• Affective

• Feelings and emotions

What component of attitudes does discrimination map on to (think ABC)?

• Behavioural

• Overt beheaviour

Where are stereotypes often learned from?

Culture and media

What is an example of stereotyping in films?

• Movies about princesses often convey gender stereotypes

• Stereotypical themes in children’s films have been replaced by positive trends in recent movies

• Heroic modern princesses

What is the kernel of truth hypothesis (Allport, 1954)?

• Although stereotypes are inaccurate they may contain some accurate elements which are overly generalised

• Leads to an unjustified jump to assumptions about essential differences in traits and abilities based on group

What do accurate stereotypes have in common?

• Tend to focus on specific facts

• e.g gender differences in height

Do stereotypic facts imply and real difference in underlying traits or innate differences?

No

What does social role theory suggest about the source of stereotypes?

• Stereotypes come from roles and behaviours that societal pressures may impose on a particular group

• Stereotypes attached to groups are often a function of historical and culturally embedded social norms

• e.g Males are agentic, females are communal

What does the stereotype content model suggest?

• Stereotypes range along competence and warmth

• We have different emotional reactions to different types of groups

What is another source of stereotypes?

Illusory correlations

What is an illusory correlation?

• An association between two occurrences (person and action)

• Fundamental attribution error

What does an illusory correlation create?

An exaggerated perception of a correlation

What are some examples of illusory correlations?

• Black Americans as violent

• Women as bad at maths/science

• Elderly as bad drivers

How do we use stereotypes?

• Categorisation of common categories

• Such as gender, race, age

What is the out-group homogeneity effect?

• Tendency to view individuals in out-groups as more similar to each other than they really are

• Perceive less details of out-group members

What is stereotype activation?

• Automatic application of stereotypes sometimes occurs

• Similar to priming

How can stereotype activation be inhibited?

Self-control

Why may we not be able to exercise self-control to prevent automatic activation?

• Cognitive capacity may be limited

• As we are cognitive misers

What do stereotypes and prejudices often lead to?

Discrimination

What does Allport identify as the 3 basic causes of prejudice?

• Hostile feelings towards other social groups

• Preferences for the in-group over out-groups

• Internalised worldview

When do feelings of hostility arise?

• When we are threatened or frustrated

• Displaced aggression

• We look for a scapegoat

What does realistic group conflict theory suggest about prejudice?

• Prejudice is due to conflict over scarce resources or competition

• Cultural transmission through generations

• We are motivated to maximise rewards for group even if it is at the expensive of another grop

Describe’s Sherif’s (1954) Robber’s Cave study

• 22 boys from lower middle-class backgrounds

• Divided into 2 groups (Eagles and Rattlers)

What is the minimal group paradigm?

Groups can be made arbitrarily

What is in group bias?

• We have a preference for in-groups over out-groups

• In-group biases can make us feel better about ourselves

• Group memberships can boost our self-esteem

What are people with low-self esteem more likely to do?

• Scapegoat

• Discriminate

What does Tajfel’s 1971 social identity theory suggest?

• We derive self-esteem from our valued group memberships

• Share and adopt opinions with out in-group to feel validated

• Develop belief that ‘out-groups’ are inferior

What is Tajfel’s self-esteem hypothesis?

• Prejudice supports that your group is better than out-group (downward social comparison)

• Low self-esteem promotes prejudice to raise self-esteem

What is ethnocentrism?

• Viewing the world through our own cultural value system, and judging people based on our own culture’s views

• Prejudice

According to terror management theory, why does ethnocentrism persist?

• People sustain faith in cultural worldview to feel safe/secure

• Culture/worldview has protected us in the past

• Challenging the status-quo may threaten morality

What is right-wing authoritarianism?

• Prejudiced personality

• Believe the world is inherently dangerous and maintaining security requires upholding order and tradition (ethnocentrism)

• Predicts prejudice against groups seen as deviant or dangerous

What is social dominance orientation?

• Prejudiced personality

• Ruthless/competitive worldview where powerful dominate the weak

• Tendency to think in simple, clear cut ways (right vs wrong)

What is institutional discrimination?

• Unfair restrictions on opportunities for certain groups of people through institutional policies and formal laws

Name some examples of institutional discrimination?

• Redlining

• Less economic value and pay for traditional feminine occupations (e.g nurses)

• Underrepresentation of minorities/women in higher-paying jobs

What is redlining?

When resources are withheld from stigmatised neighbourhoods

What is old-fashioned racism/sexism?

• Blatant negative attitudes on basis of group membership

• Often compared against ‘subtle’ or ‘modern’ racism/sexism

What is hostile sexism?

Women are inferior, irrational, weak

What is benevolent sexism?

Idealising women in traditional feminine roles

What is ambivalent sexism?

Combination of hostile and benevolent sexism

What is implicit prejudice?

• Negative attitudes towards out-group with little or no awareness

• Automatically activated in intergroup encounters

Why may some people elect not to admit their prejudice?

Social desirability

What are two measures of implicit prejudice?

• Physiological measures

• Cognitive measures

How can we use physiological measures to look at implicit prejudice?

• Indexing immediate physiological reactions to a person or group

• e.g startle response, amygdala activation, heart rate/skin conductance

What is an example of a cognitive measure of implicit prejudice?

Implicit Association test (IAT)

Why is there only small correlations between prejudice and discrimination?

• Prejudice alone is not sufficient to promote discrimination

• Social norms and perceived control impact behaviour

What does Ajzen’s (1991) theory of planned behaviour suggest?

• Behaviour is complex and rarely rational

• This includes discrimination

• As well as sex, smoking, eating, substance/alcohol use

• These behaviours may be difficult to control voluntarily

How does Ajzen’s (1991) theory of planned behaviour explain small correlations between prejudice and discrimination?

• Prejudiced attitudes can influence behaviour

• These attitudes interact with social norms and expectations to act morally

• Also interact with the availability of self-control to inhibit actions

How do social norms and expectations influence behaviour?

Act as an ‘external brake’ on behaviour

How may social norms change?

Based on group identity and context

How does availability of self-control influence behaviour?

Acts as an ‘internal brake’ on behaviour

How may availability of self-control be undermined?

Fatigue or time constraints

What does suppressing discrimination require? What happens when these resources are reduced?

• Requires attention and mental effort

• When these resources are reduced, people can express their prejudice

Why is suppressing behaviour difficult?

Because underlying attitudes are strongly influencing behaviour