AICE English A Level vocab

Acronym

Definition: New words formed by the initial letters of a name or description
Example: YOLO (You only live once)
Link: Telling someone to RSVP for an event

Amelioration

Definition: The upgrading or elevation of a word's meaning
Example: The change in the definition of the word "silly"
Link: When a word with a negative sense develops a positive one

Archaism/Archaic

Definition: A very old word or phrase that is no longer used
Example: Damsel - A young, unmarried woman - a word that is very rarely, if ever, used
Link: Speaking words that were used by Shakespeare that are no longer used today

Backformation

Definition: A form of clipping where a long word or phrase is shortened and gives a new word in a different form
Example: "Babysitter" to "Babysit"
Link: A noun being turned into a verb

Blending

Definition: Combining two parts of different words to make a new one
Example: "Spanglish" - "Spanish" + "English"
Link: The media utilizes the blending of words a lot.

Borrowing

Definition: The process by which a word from one language is adapted for use in another
Example: "Lemon" - Arabic
Link: Most of the English language is made up of borrowed words. A lot of borrowed French words.

Broadening

Definition: The meaning of a word becomes broader or more inclusive than its earlier meaning
Example: "cookie" used to mean, "plain bun," but now it has a more broad definition of "sweet, little cake"
Link: Broadening often connects to borrowing, like when a word is adapted from another language, it expands or changes its meaning

Clipping

Definition: The shortening of longer words
Example: "photograph" to "photo"
Link: When writing informally, clipped words are used more often.

Coalescence

Definition: When sounds are clipped from endings of words or between two words where the articulation merges or coalesces
Example: /wh/ and /w/ in "whine" and "wine" are pronounced in the same way
Link: Informal speech, because it is done faster, often involves this concept.

Coinage

Definition: The creation of new words
Example: Kleenex
Link: Often nouns that can become verbs - to google something

Compounding

Definition: Making new words by combining two complete words
Example: "toothbrush" = "tooth" + "brush"
Link: Sometimes uses a hyphen, like "African-American"

Computer-Mediated Discourse

Definition: The distinctive pattern of discourse generated by computer networks.
Example: Texts and forums
Link: Facebook has Facebook Messenger

Coordination

Definition: The joining of words, phrases, or clauses of the same type to give them equal emphasis and importance
Example: I refuse to order pizza, for it will make me gain weight.
Link: These words, phrases, or clauses are usually joined by the common conjunctions (FANBOYS)

Derivation

Definition: The formation of a word from another word or from a root in the same or another language.
Example: un (prefixes) + kind (root) = unkind
Link: Often using a prefix and a root word

Descriptivism

Definition: An approach to language that focuses on how it is actually spoken and written
Example: "You've been doing what you are not supposed to." - A descriptivist would say this sentence is okay because it is spoken naturally. A prescriptivist would say this sentence is not okay.
Link: It is the antithesis of prescriptivism.

Digraph

Definition: A group of two successive letters ​that represents a single sound or phoneme
Example: ee (free), ei (eight), ey (key), ie (piece)
Link: Directly related to phonology

Diphthong

Definition: A vowel in which there is a noticeable sound change within the same syllable.
Example: ei (weight), ai (brain), ay (today)
Link: These are affected by dialects. In Baton Rouge, people pronounce 'dog' as 'dawg'

Discourse Genre

Definition: Historically specific elements of social practice that are linked to situated communicative acts
Example: opinions, gossip, breaking news
Link: Most of this communication is public online, although there are private ways of this.

Eponym

Definition: A person whose name has given rise to the name of a people, place, etc., or a personal name which is used as a common noun
Example: Alzheimer's
Link: These are continuously created. There are many eponyms for sports trophies

Etymology

Definition: The history of a word or word element
Example: "Geek" used to mean "sideshow freak" and was spelled "geck"; and it is now most often used as slang like "nerd"
Link: Relates to derivation and origins

Grammar

Definition: A set of rules and examples dealing with the syntax and word structures (morphology) of a language
Example: verbs, nouns, commas (encompasses anything in a language basically)
Link: It is the mortar for the bricks of a language

Graphology/Grapheme

Definition: (Graphology) The study of the system of symbols which communicates language in written form. (Grapheme) a unit of a writing system and sequences of written symbols that are used to represent a single phoneme.
Example: Individual letters, spacing, punctuation, etc.
Link: Basically, it is the writing system of a language

Inflection

Definition: A process of word formation in which items are added to the base form of a word to express grammatical meanings.
Example: The plural -s; the third-person singular -s; the past tense -d, -ed, or -t
Link: theses can change the usage of the word in so many ways: plural, tenses, verb

Lexis/Lexeme

Definition: (Lexis) Sum total of all words of a language (Lexeme) The basic unit of meaning in the lexicon, stripped of any inflections
Example: 'play' - not playing, played, or plays
Link: lexemes make up the lexicon, which mix up to make up the entire lexis

Morphology/Morpheme

Definition: The structure of words with their meaning
Example: Morphology - Morph (base; form) + o (connecter vowel) + log (base; speech/word) + y (suffix)
Link: Have categories of morphemes like free and bound morphemes.

Narrowing

Definition: The meaning of a word becomes less general or inclusive than its earlier meaning
Example: "Litter" used to mean "bring forth" but now means "to scatter in a disorderly way"
Link: Like broadening, this can also relate to borrowing.

Neologism

Definition: A newly coined word or expression
Example: Banana Republic
Link: Often connected to the culture

Onomatopoeia

Definition: The formation of a word from a sound associated with what is named
Example: 'crackle' or 'sizzle'
Link: This is a figure of speech that is often used in children's books and stories

Orthography

Definition: The practice or study of correct spelling according to established usage
Example: Spelling orthography is a example
Link: Relates to digraphs because a digraph is a pair of characters used in the orthography of a language to write a single phoneme

Paralinguistic Features

Definition: the aspects of spoken communication that do not involve words
Example: body language, gestures, and facial expressions
Link: This is obviously only in spoken conversation

Pejoration

Definition: The downgrading or depreciation of a word's meaning
Example: "Attitude" used to mean "position, pose" but now it is a "mental state" and is often used in a negative connotation
Link: Related to, but more common than, amelioration

Phonology/Phoneme

Definition: The study of the many different sounds in a language
Example: cat = /c/ /a/ /t/
Link: Related to allophones - phonemes representing dialect versions of certain sounds

Pragmatics

Definition: the meaning of language in its context of use
Example: The pragmatic response to the question "Can you pass the salt?" would be to just simply pass the salt to the speaker.
Link: Basically is semantics with context

Prefix

Definition: a letter or group of letters attached to the beginning of a word that partly indicates its meaning
Example: 'anti' = against or opposite
Link: these go at the beginning of words, opposite of suffixes, which go at the end of words

Prescriptivism

Definition: The attitude or belief that one variety of a language is superior to others and should be promoted as such
Example: Only allows correct, proper, and formal usage
Link: It is the opposite of descriptivism

Reduplication

Definition: A word or lexeme that contains two identical or very similar parts
Example: "papa," "mama," "peepee"
Link: Often used when speaking to very young children for some reason

Semantics

Definition: the study of the meaning of morphemes, words, phrases and sentences
Example: The semantic (literal) response to the question, "Can you give me a hand?" would be to say "No" because you would be literally ripping your hand off of your body and giving it to the speaker.
Link: An extension of this is pragmatics

Subordination

Definition: the process of linking two clauses in a sentence so that one clause is dependent on (or subordinate to) another
Example: After she drank the wine, she went to sleep.
Link: This is often done by using a prepositional phrase

Suffix

Definition: a letter or group of letters added to the end of a word or root
Example:
Link: These go at the end of a word, opposite of prefixes, which go at the beginning

Syntax

Definition: the rules that govern the ways in which words combine to form phrases, clauses, and sentences
Example: "What is that?" "Where do I go?"
Link: ^^ (Goes with example) You automatically know to start a question with a question word

Telescoping

Definition: The contraction of a phrase, word, or part of a word
Example: "situation comedy" to "sitcom"
Link: The definition is an analogy referencing a telescope being closed

Tense

Definition: the time of a verb's action or its state of being
Example: "I walk." (present) "I walked" (past) "I will walk" (future)
Link: Tense moves into aspect, which branches off of tense

Global/world language

A language spoken internationally and by large groups of people. Often used over large geographic areas and in international business exchanges.

Ex: English, Latin, Spanish

Lingua franca

A language of micture of languages used as a medium of communication by people whose native languages are different.

Ex: Globish (simplified english), French (in colonial context), Swahili (a creole)

Multilingualism

The ability of an individual speaker or a community of speakers to communicate in 3+ languages.

Accommodation

The process by which participants in a conversation adjust their accent, diction, and speech style to match the other participant.

Ex: Switching accents according to the area (American → Canadian), learning multiple languages

Krachru’s Circles model

Shows English usage as a global language: Inner circle representing countries where English is a first language, outer circle represents significant communication, expanding circle is where English is considered a foreign language.

Ex: New Zealand → Sri Lanka → Taiwan

Non-standard English

The informal form of English, often using slang, colloquialisms, and known for poor spelling, grammar, and punctuation.

Ex: “If I was you”, “wanna”, “gonna”

Creolisation

The coming together of cultural traits and languages to form a new language, often through contact, violence, displacement, or colonialism.

Ex: Manipuri (Bangali-based), Kreyol, Patois

New Varieties of English (NEVs)

Regional and national varieties of the English language used in places where it is not the mother tongue of the majority of the population.

Ex: Singlish (Singaporean English), Kiwi English

Linguistic imperialism

The transfer of language from a language community that has power over another community. Traditionally, this power would take place during invasion or colonialism.

Ex: Spanish in Latin America, French in the Caribbean

Language death

The decline of usage in a language until no native speakers remain can be caused by a shift in national language, colonialization, or groups dying out.

Ex: Latin, Akkadian (Mesopotamia), Eyak (Native American)

Language revitalization

The attempt to halt or reverse the decline of a language or to revive an extinct one.

Ex: Maori (New Zealand), Gaelic (Ireland)

Language shift

The process where a speech community shifts to a different language, usually over a extended period of time.

Ex: second/third generation chinese americans speaking english, german and welsh lutheran bible translations causing shift

Killer language

Dominant languages that “kills” other less known languages.

Ex: Russian in Kazahkstan (USSR)

Anglocentric

Centered on a view of Britain

Pidgin

A simplified mix of languages.

Ex: Gullah (Appalachian), Nigerian pidgin (mix of tribal languages)

Language contact

Features of different languages may transfer when there is contact and interaction between speakers. Leads to creoles and pidgins.

Ex: Michif (between French fur traders and Cree wives), mouthing and finger spelling in deaf communities (deaf communities and oral languages)

Language attrition

The process of decreasing proficiency in or losing a language. Caused by isolation of native language, and acquisition of second language.

Ex: Foster children in different countries, moving to a different country that does not use the first language.

Idiolect

The distinctive pattern of an individual’s speech.

Ex: Ms Aleandre speaks more formally than me in class

Sociolect

The style of speech shared by people in a particular geographical region.

Ex: Sri Lankans pronouncing “v”s as “w”s.

Conversational face

The image that a person has of themselves as a conversationalist.

Ex: Gaby saying she’s going to beat me up to intimidate me.

Face-threatening acts

Acts or words that appear to threaten the self-esteem of a speaker in conversation.

Ex: Gaby punching me in an effort to make me feel sad.

Linguistic determination

The idea that the structure of a language determines the thought processes of its speakers.

Ex: Japanese having different forms based on status and familiarity, stressing the importance of honorifics and respect.

Linguistic reflectionism

The idea that language reflects the thoughts and ideas of a culture, opposite of linguistic determination.

Ex: Ideologies towards gender equality shifting, words like “fireman” and “policeman” adopting gender neutral forms.

Linguistic relativity

The idea that the structure of a language affects a person’s view of the world, either very directly (linguistic determinism) or as a more indirect, weaker influence.

Convergence

When we make our language similar to those speakers around us.

Ex: Albanian, Bulgarian, Romanian, and Greek share grammatical features dud due to interaction in the Balkan region.

Linguistic prestige

The degree of respect and value given to a particular style of language.

Ex: Received Pronunciation having the the most prestige out of the Englishes

Patois

A particular variety of speech used by a group may be regarded as having a low status (not to be confused with Jamaican patois, a language spoken by most Jamaicans, a creole, mix of English and African languages.)

Code switch

Switching between different varities or registers of language.

Ex. African Americans switching from AAVE→ American English when speaking to white colleages

Computer mediated communication

Communication between people by means of electronic devices

Ex: Email, texting, online chat rooms

Stages of child language development

• Pre-linguistic/phonological: Babbling and non-vocal interaction. Ranging from 0-9 months.

• One word stage/holographic: Child begins to use single words which function as their whole utterance. Ranging from 9-18 months.

• Two word stage: Child beings to string multiple words together in one utterance. Ranging from 1.5-2.5 years old.

• Telegraphic stage: Child’s language can still omit grammatical features but are developing their use and language resembles that of a telegram. Ranging from 2.5-4 years old.

• Post-telegraphic stage: Child showcases an incease in understanding of grammar, syntax, and pragmatics and language continues to move toward standard English. Ranging from 4 years onwards.

Turn-talking

Contrary to typical conversational mannerisms (waiting for someone to finish talking before responding). Typically interrupting.

Feedback

A group of verbal and non-verbal signals given by the listener to show they are following the conversation.

Ex: nodding

Backchanneling

Feedback in words and sounds which a listener gives a speaker to show they are listening.

Ex: “yeah”, “uh huh”

Eilision

The omission of a sound or syllable from a word in speech.

Transcript

A written record of spoken language which uses symbols and marking to represent the distinctive nature of speech.

Metalanguage

Language used to describe language

ex. verbs, nouns

Phatic communication

Communication mainly in the form of greetings, which has social function to help build a relationship between participants, not to inform.

Intonations

The rise and fall of the voice while speaking, which can alter the meaning of a word.

Ex: In British English the end of an utterance is usually accompanied by falling intonations.

Caretaker language

Simple style of speech used by those who look after infants and small children

Holophrastic

A single word that expresses a complete idea with children. Caregivers have to use contextual clues to interpret holophrases.

Ex: “ball” meaning child wants it, has found it, likes the ball.

Overextension

When a word is used more broadly than it should be.

Underextension

When a word is used in a extremely narrow context.

Hypernyms

Words for categories.

Ex: : “Furnitiure”, “primate”

Hyponyms

Names or actions which are specific and which can be grouped in a broader class of a hypernym.

Ex: “fork” and “spoon” both hyponyms under the hypernym “cutlery”

Virtuous errors

Errors made by young children which show their application of some rules of grammar as they apply regular rules to irrelgular forms.

Ex: Using the “-ed” form in the past tense of “swimmed” (vs swam).

Restricted Code

Language that assumes a shared understanding amongst the speakers. Typically limited and generally uses a limited lexical range and syntax construction.

Elaborated Code

Language used more broadly in society which is more complete and often more complex in lexis and syntax.

Heurism

Learning through experience, heuristic language which enables a child to learn and to explore their environment.

Nature

In this context, the inherited genetic and physical makeup of a person.

Ex: Gender and ethnicity

Nurture

In this context, the sum of all environmental influences a person experiences.

Ex: family, environment, schooling

Conditioning

A process whereby behavior is changed or modified due to the repeated presence of a stimulus, repetition of the stimulus over time triggers a specific form of behavior.

Ex: words of praise and stimulus for learning language.

Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

An innate system in the brain which allows the spontaneous development of language in a child from birth, according to Noam Chomsky.

Language Acquistion Support System (LASS)

System of support from caregivers to children that helps them acquire language and become sociable, according to Brewer.

Scaffolding

Support provided by a teacher or peer to help the child achieve something in their zone of proximal development. Typically this support tapers off as the child learns to achieve the thing by themselves.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

The gap between what a child can do by themselves and what they can do with appropriate support.

Initiation Response Feedback (IRF)

A pattern of discussion between a student and teacher in which the teacher asks the student a question, the student responds, and then the teacher provides feedback on their answer.

Non Fluency Features

Features that appear naturally in spoken language.

Ex. repetitions, pauses, false starts.