AAQ Prep & Unit 1: AP Psychology

Experiment

A research method that tests causal relationships by manipulating one or more independent variables and observing the effect on a dependent variable. Experiments often involve control and experimental groups to ensure valid results.

Correlational Study

A non-experimental research method used to assess the relationship or correlation between two variables.

meta-analysis

A statistical technique that combines the results of multiple studies to identify overall trends and effects.

case study

A research method that involves an in-depth examination of a single individual, group, or event over time, providing detailed qualitative data.

Usually a small group (1-5 people)

natural observation

A research method that involves observing subjects in their natural environment without manipulation or control by the researcher.

independent variable

The variable that is manipulated or changed in an experiment to observe its effect on the dependent variable. (CONTROLLABLE)

dependent variable

The variable that is measured or observed in an experiment; it is affected by changes in the independent variable. (UNCONTROLLABLE)

confounding variable

A factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment, potentially skewing results.

Mean

average

Mode

most prevalent

Median

middle of the data set

Range

differenc between the biggest and smallest

Standard deviation

a measure of the amount of variation or dispersion of a set of values.

statistical significance

the likelihood that a relationship or difference observed in data is not due to chance.

Informed consent

the process by which participants are fully informed about the study and agree to participate voluntarily.

no coercion

forbids one person from forcing another to do something they don’t want to

right to withdraw

the participant's ability to exit a study at any time without penalty.

no harm (pyschological or physical)

Research participants should not experience any physical or psychological injury as a result of their participation.

Condiedentiality

The ethical principle that requires researchers to protect the privacy of participants by keeping their information secure and undisclosed.

debrief afterwards

Participants are given information about the study after it concludes, including its purpose and any potential effects.

Behavioral approach

How we learn observable responses

Biological approach

How the body and brain enable emotions, memories, actions, memories, and sensory experiences

Cognitive approach

How we THINK, encode, process, store, and retrieve info

Evolutionary approach

How the natural selection of traits has promoted the survival of genes

Humanistic approach

How we meet our needs for love and acceptance and achieve self-fulfullment

Psychodynamic approach

How behavior springs from UNCONSCIOUS drives and conflicts

Social-cultural approach

How behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures

Hindsight bias

“I knew it all along”

Gamblers fallacy

Despite seeming patterns, the outcome of one toss gives no clue to the outcome of the next

Sunken cost fallacy

a person is reluctant to abandon a strategy or course of action because they have invested heavily in it, even if the abandonment would be more beneficial

Falsibility

the possibility that an idea, hypothesis, or theory can be disproven by observation or experiment

Operational definition

statement of exact procedure used in a research study

they allow for studies to be replicated

causation

action of causing something

CORRELATION IS NOT CAUSATION

One variable dosen’t always affect the other/cause it to change

correlation

One variable dosen’t always affect the other/cause it to change

correlation coefficient

• Statistical index of relationships between two variables (1.0 to -1.0)

• The closer to 1 or -1, the greater the correlation

• Cannot be greater than 1

• Don’t pay attention to the negative

Illusory correlation

When we believe there is a relationship between 2 things, we are likely to notice and recall instances that confirm our belief.

double blind procedure

Neither the participants nor researchers know which group is recieving what

placebo effect

a phenomenon in which some people experience a benefit after the administration of an inactive substance or sham treatment

Fake treatment that can produce a very real response

Expectations can lead to effectiveness

regression towards the mean

• Tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to all back (regress) toward the mean

• Extraordinary happenings tend to be followed by more ordinary ones

qualitative research

research method that relies on in-depth, narrative data that are not translated to numbers

Examples: interviews, observations, focus groups

hawthorne effect

People change their behavior because they are being observed

social desirability

When people respond in a way they presume a researcher expects or wishes

random sampling

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

sampling bias

flawed sampling that produces an unrepresentative sample

quantitative research

Relies on numerical data

p-value

• For most psychologists, proof beyond a reasonable doubt is less than 5% chance that something is happening by chance

• May be statistically significant, but lack partial significance

effect size

• Explains how meaningful the relationship between variables or the difference between groups is

• Large effect size- practical significance

• Small effect size- limited practical applications

descriptive statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups (helps oragnize the data meaningfully and to explain data gathered)

Simple, and does not make assumptions about larger populations

interential statistics

numerical data used to make inferences or prediction for larger populations

applied research

research conducted to solve practical problems and improve the quality of life

basic research

focused on understanding fundamental aspects of human behavior and mental processes without immediate practical applications

stratified sampling

a population is divided into subgroups (strata) based on shared characteristics (like age, gender, or education level). Then, a random sample is taken from each subgroup, ensuring the sample reflects the diversity of the population

experimental bias

researcher's behavior or expectations unintentionally influence the outcome of the study

single-blind procedure

research participants are unaware of whether they are receiving the treatment or a placebo, while the researchers or experimenters are aware of the assignment

response/participant bias

the tendency for participants to behave in a way that they believe will be perceived favorably by the researcher or to conform to what they believe the study is about

z score

a statistical measure that indicates how many standard deviations a data point is away from the mean of a distribution