brain bee full set

CT scan(cat scan) pros

3d X-RAY

Diagnostic of changes over time

Noninvasive and quick

CT scan(cat scan) clinical uses

See hemphorages( internal bleeding)

See tumor

See fractures and such

Damage to the meniges(increase contrast on picture)

DTI( diffusion tensor imaging) pros

See the movement of water in white matter

Helps see which parts of the brian are connected

noninvasive

DTI( diffusion tensor imaging) clinical uses

Helps see MS and tumors

Pre surgical planning

EEG(Electroencephalography) pros

Non invasive

See electrical acitivty of the regions of the brain by attaching electrodes to the head

Captures millisecond changes important for diagnosing

EEG(Electroencephalography) clinical uses

Diagnosing epilepsy and seizure disorders

Sleep disorders

PET scan pros

Help see if certain parts of the brain are functioning correctly(based on metabolic activity)

Sensitive to early changes in diseases

PET scan clinical uses

Diagnosing alzheimers(dementia)

Differentiate harmful and nonharmful tumors

Diagnosing cognitive decline

MRI pros

High detailed imagery of brian tissue allowing to easily see abnormalities

3d

Sensitive to changes

MRI clinical uses

Spotting tumors

Diagnosing MS

FMRI BOLD

Detect changes in blood oxygenation(BOLD)

BOLD(detects the decrease of deoxyhemoglobin,less oxygenated blood, as oxyhemoglobin floods the area)

Blood oxygenation level dependent

FMRI clincal uses

surgical planning and mapping brain area functions

Alcohol

Dampen excitatory signals and increase inhibitory signals

Antagonist to exictarory receptors and agonist to inhibitor receptors

relaxtion

Rohypnol

Date rape drug

Causes relaxtion and causes sedation
allosteric modulator that increases the binding of GABA to its receptors

Ketamine

Dissociative anesthetic

Sedation, hallucinations, etc

Depressants drugs

alcohol, rohypnol, ketamine
depresses the nervous system

Nicotine

Acts on the acetylcholine receptor( function: natural alerting mechanisms

Increase alertness and arousal

Methamphetamine/meth

Overuse causes free radicals to destroy the body

Causes an abnormal release of dopamine from neurons, causing euphoria

Amphetamines

Release huge amounts of dopamine(pleasure) and serotonin(hallucinations)

euphoria

Cocaine

Prevents dopamine and serotonin reuptake, causing it to stay in the synaptic cleft for longer

euphoria

Heroin and morphine

Binds to opioid receptors

Relief,euphoria, pain relief

marijuana(cannibis)

Acts on the neurotransmitters that affect control of muscle and pain sensitivity

Artificial endorphins\

relaxation

Ventral tegmental area

The VTA,located in the midbrain, has dopamine-producing neurons and innervates to the mesolimbic tract

Mesolimbic tract

Filled with dopamine producing neurons which release dopamine in to the nucleus accumbens in the basal ganglia when we do something we enjoy

Mesocortical tract

The 2nd place VTA innervates to is the PFC

Changes in the dopamine projections causes changes in the PFC which may lead poor decision-making making like most addicts have

Heminglect syndrome Causes

Stroke or damage to the right side of the brain, usually in the right parietal cortex(important for involuntary attention)

Heminglect syndrome symptoms

1. The patient is unaware of the left side of his body

2. May eat food from one side

3. Write from one side

4. May ignore the other side of their visual(cant notice stimuli from left side)

ADHD symptoms

Unable to focus'

Hyperactivity

Impulsive behavior

ADHD treatments

Methylphenidate(improve attention by increasing dopamine and norepinephrine)

Schizophrenia symptoms

Hallucinations

Delusions

Hard to make decisions

Loss of motivation and pleasure

attention issues

Prospronogia causes and symptoms

The inability to identify a familar face (family members, friends)

Caused by the damage to the FFA and PPA

HAND(HIV associated neurological disorder) symptoms

Mainly affects processing speed and motor skills

causes of epilepsy

Stroke, Brain tumor, Traumatic brain injury, Central nervous system infection,

Generalized seizure

a seizure that affects both sides of the brain

Absence (Petitmal) Seizures

Causes rapid blinking or staring spells

tonic-clonic seizure

Tonic phase: muscles stiffening

clonic phase: muscle spasms and convulsion

secondary generalized seizure

Partial seizure that transitions to generalized seizure activity

focal seizure

A simple focal seizure can cause twitching or a change in sensation, triggering strange smells or tastes.

a big one can cause loss of conciousness or confusion

Cerebral palsy causes

Head injury to brain areas related with movement

Bleeding in the brain

infection

Cerebral palsy symptoms

Damage to motor areas, stiffness in muscles and involuntary movements may occur

Ischemic stroke causes

a blockage in the blood vessels(usually because of a blood clot)

athersclerosis(build up of fatty plaques in vessels)

Ischemic stroke treatment

Tissue plasmogen activator(tPA) dissolves clots and opens up the blood stream

hemorrhagic strokes causes

burst of blood vessel in the brain is caused by

1. Caused by high blood pressures

2. Aneurysm(weak blood vessel walls)

3. Amyloid buildup in blood vessels

what is Peripheral neuropathy(a symptom of diseases)

Damage to the peripheral nerves in the peripheral nervous system

Peripheral neuropathy

Tingling and numbness

Muscle weaknessBurning or shooting pain

quadriplegic cause and symptoms

damage to the spine

paralysis of limbs

strabimus

Causes

Damage to ocular nerves

Symptoms

Eye deviations

Middle sightness

Outward deviation

fragile X syndrome Causes

genetically mutation of FMR1 gene in the chromosome X

fragile X syndrome symptoms

1. Autism

2. Delay in learning basic skill(language, crawling, walking)

3. Flat feet, low muscle tone

Autism symptoms

1. Bad social skills(bad at social cues, sharing emotions)

2. Could have no speech at all

3. Intense focus on one thing

4. Unusual sensitivity to sensory inputs

Megalencephaly and microcephaly Causes

Too much proliferation of neurons

Genetical mutation

Megalencephaly and microcephaly Symptoms

Bigger head for mega and smaller head for micro

Intellectual disabilities

Delayed motor development

Delayed speech development

Seizures

Migraines causes

Changes in the brain stem and interactions with the trigemial nerve

Increase activity in the cerebral blood vessels

migraines symptoms

1. Throbbing head pain

2. Hypersensitivity to light

3. Migranous aura(flashing lights and lines)

Migraines treatments

triptan(activates specific serotonin receptors prevent migraine)

Congenital insensitivity to pain

the condition of being born without the ability to perceive pain

Brocas aphasia(non fluent) Symptoms

1.Person can only say short phrases and words

2. Reading and comprehension is fine though

3. Can't write

Wernickes aphasia(fluent) symptoms

1. Fluent speech but the words are arranged wrongly

2. Comprehension, reading, writing, are all impaired

Global aphasia definition and where the damage is

Cant read, write, comprehend, and speak

damage to both brocas and wernickes area

Conduction aphasia causes

1. Damage to the connection between the brocas area and wernickes area

2. Damage specifically to the arcuate fasciculus which is a white matter tract

Conduction aphasia Symptoms

1. Speech and comprehension are good

2. Word finding and repeating words is bad

Dyslexia symptoms

Difficulty of pronouncing phonemes ( letter sounds)

Difficulty pronouncing new words

Abnormal signaling of the language parts of the brain to memory

Conductive hearing loss causes

Caused by a ear tumor or changes in middle ear pressure

damage up to the oval window

Sensorineural hearing loss causes

Damage to areas of the inner ear

Caused hair cell damage, brain tumor

Narcolepsy causes

Low levels of orexin(arousal NT)

Narcolepsy Symptoms

1. Random sleep attacks

2. Cataplexy attacks(paralysis of the muscles)

3. Sleep paralysis(cant move body waking up or starting to sleep)

4. Hallucinations of getting attacked

5. Hypnagonic hallucinations as you go to bed

Obstructive sleep apnea Causes

Obesity

Genetically inherited enlarged tonsil and other throat or mouth characteristics

Obstructive sleep apnea symptoms

Terrible sleep

Wake up in the middle of the night to breath

Snoring - gasping for air- cycle repeats

3 types of insomnia and definition

Onset insomnia, Maintenance insomnia, Fatal familial insomnia

insomnia, REM sleep disorder treatments

Benzodiazepines(induces sleep because it enhances the effects of GABA inhibitory NT)

Restless leg syndrome causes

Iron deficiency

Incorrect dopamine signaling

Restless leg syndrome symptoms

Tingling or buzzing in someones limbs causing them to voluntarily move them

Isnt classified as a sleeping disorder but it can deter sleep

Periodic limb movement disorder

Involuntary kicking or swinging of the legs and arms

Bipolar disease Symptoms

Mania symptoms

-Recklessness

-Easily distracted

Depression symptoms

-Hopelessness

-loss of pleasure and interest

Bipolar Disease Treatment

Lithium drugs(antipsychotics that help decrease mania symptoms)

Antidepressants for depression symptoms

Major depression Treatments

SSRI's (seratonin reuptake inhibitors, more serotonin in the brain)

SAD(seasonal affective disorder)

a type of depression that is related to changes in seasons and begins and ends about the same time every year

PTSD symptoms

1. Reliving the traumatic event(flashbacks)

2. Avoidance of things that remind you of the traumatic event

3. hyperarousal(very wary of your surroundings)

4. Dizziness, fainting,

PTSD treatment

Prazosin and beta blockers which decrease norepinephrine(flight or fight NT)

Borderline personality disorder symptoms

condition marked by extreme instability in mood, identity, and impulse control, Intense fear of abandoment, Views of others can suddenly change

, Fear of being alone

Korsakoff's syndrome symptoms

1. Inability to form new memories after the onset of the disease

2. Short-term memory is cooked

3. Gaps in long-term memory

4. confabulation(filling in memory with false info)

No behavioral or personality changes

Korsakoff's syndrome causes

1. Both are caused by vitamin B1 deficiency(thiamine)

2. B1 deficiency caused by alcohol abuse or malabsorption(inability to absorb the vitamin)

Alzheimers disease Causes

1. Amyloid beta plaques(Neuritic plaques)

tau(tangles within neurons)(Neurofibrillary tangles)

Shrinked brain

2. Mutation of the PSEN gene, which cleaves the amyloid precursor protein(producer of amyloid beta peptides)

3. TOMM40 mutation, which causes a change in the length of the intron, causes Alzheimer's

4. Loss of function Mutation in the TREM2 allow the amyloid beta protein to build without restraint

Alzheimers disease Symptoms

Early: Memory problems, Difficulty calculating and concentrating

Mild: Personality and behavioral changes, Taking longer to complete certain tasks, getting lost

Moderate: Forget who family are, Hallucinations, Can't learn new things

Severe: Bedridden,Weight loss,Bowel issues

Frontotemporal dementia causes

Tau protein tangles

Mutation of C9ORF72

Frontotemporal dementia Symptoms

1. Behavioral and personality changes

2. difficulty in social settings

3. Language difficulties (loss of speech)

4. Memory loss like Alzheimer's

Alzheimers treatments

1. memantine(NMDA antagonist that prevent exocitoxicity by calcium)

2. donepezil,Rivastigmine, (aceythcholinerase inhibitor that increases aceythcholine in the brain)

3. Donepezil and memantine is combined to help relieve symptoms in moderate and severe stages

Botulism causes

Toxin cleaves the SNARE protein, preventing the SNARE protein from helping neurotransimitter filled vesicles from expelling NT's in the synaptic cleft

botulism symptoms

Muscle spasms

muscles and face

localization theory

The theory that all brain parts have different, unique functions

Reticular theory

All parts of the nervous system are physically connected and work together as a network(replaced with the neuron doctrine, which founded synapses)

Convergence projection theory

States the reason why people feel pain in one area when the damage is in a internal organ(referred pain), is that the nerves of the body areas both converge at the same secondary neuron in the spinothalamic tract

Central sensitization theory

Internal organ damage sends persistent pain signals, which then activate long-term potentiation, causing a hyper-sensitivity to pain signals even if the stimuli is non-noxious

NREM 1

Muscles still somewhat active

Brain waves get lower and lower frequencies

Alpha waves(8-13) to theta waves(4-8)

NREM 2 characteristics

Theta waves(4-8hz)

Research suggest that the k complex and the sleep spindles may happen because of memory processing and also minimizing perception of distracting sounds

NREM 3(SWS)

Delta waves(0.5-4hz)

Called deep sleep

Heart rate, respiration and blood pressure drop to the lowest point

Slow wave sleep

Large amplitudes , low frequency

Suprachiasmatic neurons

The suprachiasmatic neuron is in the hypothalamus

Excites the pineal gland to release melatonin

Uses visual information about light to either inhibit or excite the pineal gland

Retinohypothalamic tract

An alternate pathway that turns light into signals that go to the Suprachiasmatic neurons

More activity(more light) causes the SCN to inhibit the pineal gland more

VLPO(ventrolateral preoptic neuron)

Produces GABA which inhibits arousal(mainly in NREM)

Declarative/explicit memory definition and types

conscious recollection of facts, events, etc

includes semantic memory, episodic memory, and prospective memory, and spatial memory