AP Psych Unit 1 CED

Heredity, or “nature,”

refers to genetic or predisposed characteristics that influence physical, behavioral, and mental traits and processes.

Environmental factors, or “nurture,”

refers to the external factors that one experiences, such as family interactions or education.

The evolutionary perspective

explores how natural selection affects the expression of behavior and mental processes to increase survival and reproductive success. Some theorists have sought to apply principles of the evolutionary perspective in ways that discriminate against others (eugenics)

Types of research on the effects of genes on individual behavior and mental processes

twin studies, family studies, and adoption studies.

central nervous system (CNS)

includes the brain and the spinal cord and interacts with all processes in the body

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

relays messages from the central nervous system to the rest of the body and includes the autonomic and somatic nervous systems

autonomic nervous system

governs processes that are involuntary and includes the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems.

Somatic nervous system

governs processes that are voluntary

Parasympathetic nervous system (in autonomic nervous system)

Slows down body - “rest and digest”

Sympathetic nervous system (in autonomic nervous system)

“Fight or flight” - Heartrate increase, pupils dilate

neurons

neural cells that transmit information

glial cells

cells that provide structure, insulation, communication, and waste transport

Purpose of neural cells

form the basis of the nervous system and are the building blocks of all behavior and mental processes

Purpose of Heredity and environmental factors

interact to shape behavior and mental processes

(In the spinal cord) the reflex arc

demonstrates how neurons within the central and peripheral nervous systems work together to respond to stimuli

sensory neurons (afferent)

Transmits signal from receptor to Central Nervous System

motor neurons (efferent)

Transmits signals from the Central Nervous System to muscles

interneurons (inner)

Neuron that receives information and relays it to other neurons

All-or-none principle

a neuron must receive enough signal to either fire or not

Systematic firing

how neurons typically fire

Depolarization

When the neuron fires

Refractory Period

Brief amount of time where a neuron cannot fire

Resting Potential

Stable state of a neuron (needing stimuli to fire)

Reuptake

When neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the axon terminals (after firing)

Threshold

Amount of stimulus for a neuron to fire

Disruptions to neural firing could result in

disorders such as multiple sclerosis or myasthenia gravis.

multiple sclerosis

Immune system attacks myelin sheath leading to disruption of the central nervous system

myasthenia gravis

Immune system creates antibodies that block acetylcholine receptors in nerve muscle connections leading to muscle weakness

neurotransmitter specific function(s) depend on

the neurotransmitter’s location in the nervous system.

Neurotransmitters communication (excitatory)

making an action potential more likely

Neurotransmitters communication (inhibitory)

making an action potential less likely

dopamine (neurotransmitter)

reward, motivation, movement (low parkinsons) (high schizophrenia)

serotonin (neurotransmitter)

mood, sleep, appetite(low linked to depression)

norepinephrine (neurotransmitter)

alertness, arousal, flight-or fight

glutamate (neurotransmitter)

major excitor, memory (too much seizures/migranes)

GABA (neurotransmitter)

major inhibator (slows nervous system linked to anxiety/insomnia)

endorphins (neurotransmitter)

pain relief, pleasure

substance p (neurotransmitter)

transmits pain, anxiety and stress

acetylcholine (neurotransmitter)

muscle action, learning (low alzheimers)

adrenaline (hormone)

leptin (hormone)

signals fullness

ghrelin (hormone)

signals hunger

melatonin (hormone)

sleep-wake cycle (penial gland)

oxytocin (hormone)

promotes social bonding, love, and trust

agonists

encourage neural firing

antagonists

discourage neural firing

reuptake inhibitors

block the reabsorption of neurotransmitters back into the cell

Stimulants

Ex. caffeine and cocaine, typically cause increased neural activity

Depressants

Ex. alcohol, typically cause decreased neural activity

Hallucinogens

Ex. marijuana, typically cause distortions in perception and/or cognition

Opioids

Ex. heroin, typically act as pain relievers.

Psychoactive drug use can lead to

tolerance and/or addiction. Addiction can create significant withdrawal symptoms if the psychoactive drugs are no longer consumed

The brain stem (including the medulla)

generally controls basic functioning such as breathing and heart rate

reticular activating system and the brain’s reward center

generally control alertness, some voluntary movement, eye movement, and some types of learning, cognition, and emotion

cerebellum

generally controls coordination of muscle movement, balance, and some forms of procedural learning

cerebral cortex is divided into two hemispheres and includes

the limbic system (thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, hippocampus, amygdala), corpus callosum, and the lobes of the cortex.

thalamus

brain’s sensory relay station

hypothalamus

Homeostasis, hormone regulation

pituitary gland

“master gland” of the endocrine system

hippocampus

memory formation (not storage) (long-term and short)

amygdala

Processes emotion

corpus callosum

nerve fibers connecting the right and left hemispheres of the brain

occipital lobes

generally control visual information processing and are located in the rear of the brain.

temporal lobes

generally control auditory and linguistic processing and are located on the sides of the brain.

parietal lobes

generally control association areas, which process and organize information, and the somatosensory cortex, which processes touch sensitivity. These lobes are located near the back crown of the brain.

frontal lobes

located just behind the forehead, generally control linguistic processing, higher-order thinking, and executive functioning, especially in the prefrontal cortex. The motor cortex is located at the rear of the frontal lobes and controls most types of skeletal movement.

Split brain research

achieved by severing the corpus callosum (often a treatment for severe epilepsy), reveals that the right and left hemispheres of the brain may specialize in different activities and functions

left hemisphere

Areas of the brain that affect language are typically located here

Broca’s area

responsible for speech production

Wernicke’s area

responsible for speech comprehension

Testing cortex specialization

showing information in each visual field, taking advantage of the brain’s contralateral hemispheric organization to see where the brain specializes

Brain plasticity

the ability of the brain to rewire itself or modify or create new connections throughout development and generally allows for the function of a damaged part of the brain to be assumed by a different part of the brain.

EEG

records brain’s electrical activities in waves (when something happens) Stages of sleep are identified here

Research on the brain is done

to promote understanding of how the different structures of the brain work and how the brain functions together as a whole

fMRI

maps brain’s activities (where something happens)

Consciousness

has varying levels of awareness of thoughts, feelings, behavior, and events in individuals’ internal and external worlds

circadian rhythm

The sleep/wake cycle, which in humans is about a 24-hour cycle. Jet lag and shift work are disruptions of the circadian rhythm.

NREM sleep

occurs in Stages 1 through 3 and decreases in duration throughout the cycle. Stage 3 the deepest

Hypnagogic sensations

occur as one enters Initial Stage 1 sleep

REM sleep

Produces waves similar to waking, but the body is at its most relaxed. Dreaming occurs during REM sleep. The frequency of REM sleep typically increases as the cycle progresses.

REM rebound

When deprived of sleep, you spend more time in REM stage

activation-synthesis theory

dreams aren’t meaningful but the brain’s attempt to make sense from random nerve signals. Proposed by Hobson & McCarley in 1977

consolidation theory

dreaming helps the brain to transform short-term memories into long-term ones

Narcolepsy

sudden uncontrollable sleep attacks into REM, can be triggered by high emotions

REM sleep behavior disorder

lack of REM atonia (muscle paralysis) causing people to act out dreams

sleep apnea

breathing suddenly stops during night causing person to stay in light sleep

somnambulism

sleep walking during deep stage 3 NREM

Insomnia

difficulty falling/ staying asleep

Sensation

the process of detecting information from the environment that meets a certain threshold and transducing stimuli into neurochemical messages for processing (perception) in the brain.

Absolute threshold

occurs when a stimulus can be detected at least 50% of the time.

Just-noticeable difference

smallest change in stimulus that can be detected

Sensory adaption

diminished sensitivity to stimuli due to being used to constant stimulus

sensory interaction

The sensory systems constantly work together

Synesthesia

experience of sensation in which one system of sensation is experienced through another.

Retina

photosensitive surface at the back of the eye. Cells in the retina capture visual information that is transduced to the brain for processing

blind spot

known due to incomplete images, the visual nerve exits the eye here, but brain fills in gaps in incomplete images

accommodation

Visual stimuli are focused onto the retina by the lens via a process called

When accommodation of the retina is altered

nearsightedness or farsightedness can result

rods

Cells that lie in the periphery of the eye and detect shapes and movement, but not color. These cells are mainly activated in low-light environments. These cells play a role in light and dark adaptation.