Battle of Dorylaeum 1097 and march on Anatolia

Crusader army splits

To ease logistics, the army split in two. The vanguard (Tatikios, Bohemond, Tancred, Robert of Flanders, Robert of Normandy) moved ahead, followed three days later by Godfrey, Baldwin, Stephen, Hugh, and Raymond.

Size of the crusader armies

The first force had ~3000 knights, 10,000 infantry (including 2000 Byzantines), and at least as many camp followers. The second force was at least twice as large, with ~4500 knights and 20,000 infantry.

Communication between forces

Riders constantly galloped between the two halves of the army to maintain communication and share information about the route.

Seljuk coalition at Dorylaeum

Sultan Kilij Arslan allied with his rivals, the Danishmends, creating a combined force of 10,000-15,000 steppe riders.

Seljuk equipment and tactics

The Seljuk army used leather armor, swords, and recurve bows (effective range 50-60m). Their strength was in expert riding, archery, and terrain knowledge, but they lacked sufficient remounts in Anatolia.

Location of the ambush

On July 1, 1097, the crusader vanguard entered a plain at the junction of two valleys, 45km from Dorylaeum—a perfect spot for a Seljuk ambush.

Bohemond's initial response

Upon seeing the Seljuks, Bohemond ordered the infantry to build a camp near a river for a protected flank. He and Robert of Normandy led a 3000-knight cavalry charge to buy time.

The crusader defensive formation

After being driven back, Bohemond ordered his cavalry to dismount. They formed a defensive line of heavily armored knights to withstand continuous Seljuk arrow volleys.

Eyewitness account of the battle

An eyewitness described the Seljuks encircling them, throwing spears and firing arrows from a distance while "howling and shrieked... making a devilish noise."

Death of Robert of Paris

Knight Robert of Paris, who had mocked Emperor Alexios, was killed after a reckless charge. His death served as a cautionary tale against breaking formation.

Role of non-combatants in the battle

Women in the camp supplied soldiers with water and dragged away the dead. Both duties were essential for the army's survival during the five-hour battle.

Critical moment and gap in defenses

A Seljuk detachment broke through the marsh into the camp, killing many (including Tancred's brother William) before a band of knights rushed to close the gap.

Arrival of reinforcements

After five hours, Godfrey of Bouillon arrived at noon with 50 knights, followed by Raymond and Hugh. Their charge forced the Seljuks to halt their assault on the camp.

Adhemar's flanking maneuver

Bishop Adhemar used local guides to outflank the Seljuks. His Provençal troops charged the enemy camp, plundered and burned the sultan's tent, and attacked from the rear.

Outcome of the Battle of Dorylaeum

Surrounded, the Seljuk army fled. The crusaders won, losing 4000 men (celebrated as martyrs) but gaining plunder (weapons, gold, grain, animals). ~3000 Seljuks died.

Supernatural interpretations of the victory

Seljuk deserters reported seeing "two horsemen... of wondrous appearance" leading the crusaders. Christian chroniclers later claimed saints George, Demetrius, and Theodore intervened.

Aftermath and impact on Muslim world

Arabic writer Ibn al-Qalanisi noted the battle caused "acute anxiety" and increased fear in the Muslim world. It was a major psychological victory.

Bohemond's celebrated leadership

Bohemond of Taranto was most celebrated for his courage and leadership in holding the line, preventing a disaster like the Byzantine defeat at Manzikert.

Alexios's parallel campaign against Chaka

After Dorylaeum, Alexios sent armies by land and sea against Seljuk ruler Chaka of Smyrna, who was later executed by a distrustful Kilij Arslan.

John Doukas's campaign in western Anatolia

After securing Smyrna (despite a post-surrender massacre), Doukas took Ephesus. Cities like Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea surrendered, reconquering most of Anatolia for Alexios.

Scorched earth policy and harsh march

After Dorylaeum, Kilij Arslan adopted a scorched earth policy. The crusaders marched in >30°C heat with little water, leading to deaths from dehydration and trampling at a stream.

Loss of horses and animals

Western warhorses (needing 30-40L water/day) died in thousands, along with pack animals and dogs. This drastically reduced the army's mobility and speed.

Strategic southern route

The Byzantine high command chose a risky southern route instead of the usual path through Ancyra. This tricked the Seljuks and avoided further ambushes.

Physical toll on leaders

By August 1097, Raymond was severely ill, and Godfrey was badly wounded by a bear, showing the extreme physical toll of the march.

Capture of Iconium and Heraclea

The army captured the abandoned fortress of Iconium and was welcomed by its Greek population. At Heraclea, a Seljuk ambush quickly fled after a short skirmish.

Difficult Taurus mountain crossing

The army took a month to cross the Taurus mountains. The cold, steep roads forced many knights to sell their weapons and armor.

Tatikios's role in securing the route

Tatikios rushed ahead to liberate strongholds, urging citizens to prepare supplies for the crusaders and shift allegiance to Constantinople.

Extent of Byzantine reconquest

By November 1097, accounts mention the crusaders holding 165-200 fortresses and cities, indicating most of Anatolia was reconquered for Emperor Alexios I.

Impact of scorched earth on crusader mounts

The Seljuk scorched earth policy and terrain caused the loss of heavy warhorses. Knights resorted to riding oxen, mules, or walking, using goats, sheep, and dogs as pack animals.

Dehydration and water-related deaths

Soldiers were so dehydrated that when they found water, many suffocated from drinking too much too quickly.

Division at Heraclea

After Heraclea, the crusader army split: the main force took a longer northern route through Cappadocia, while a smaller contingent took the direct route via the Cilician Gates.

Strategic reasoning for the split

The division was part of Alexios's cunning plan to establish a secure base for supplies and reinforcements, showing the discipline and coordination of the crusader princes' council.

Cilician expedition commanders

The expedition into Cilicia was commanded by Baldwin of Boulogne and Tancred, lesser-known relatives of Godfrey and Bohemond seeking to prove themselves.

Tancred's force to Tarsus

Tancred led a force of no more than 200 men, guided by an Armenian, and reached Tarsus before Baldwin.

Capture of Tarsus (Sep 21, 1097)

Tancred defeated the Seljuk garrison outside Tarsus, bluffed about a larger force, and received the city's surrender the next morning, raising his banner on the citadel.

Baldwin's arrival and dispute at Tarsus

Baldwin arrived the same day and, despite no combat role, demanded equal spoils. Using his larger force, he forced Tancred to accept, replaced Tancred's banner, and threw it into a marsh.

Massacre of Norman reinforcements

A month later, 300 Norman reinforcements for Tancred were refused entry into Tarsus by Baldwin's garrison. The Seljuk garrison slaughtered them at night, and rumors spread that Baldwin was responsible.

Baldwin's reaction to the massacre

Fearing blame, Baldwin locked himself in a tower until the unrest passed, then installed his own garrison and left a week later, his reputation stained.

Tancred secures Mamistra and Alexandretta

Tancred was welcomed by Armenians in Mamistra after the Seljuk garrison fled. He later garrisoned Mamistra with 50 men and secured the port of Alexandretta.

Confrontation between Tancred and Baldwin at Mamistra

Baldwin camped outside Mamistra, leading to a brief, non-lethal brawl between the two crusader forces. They made peace the next day and went separate ways.

Tancred rejoins the main host

After securing Cilicia, Tancred met up with the main crusading army on its way to Antioch, having established a friendly Armenian base.

Baldwin's eastern adventure begins

Guided by an Armenian named Bagrat, Baldwin headed east with just 100 knights, promising riches and land.

Capture of Tell Bashir and Ravendal

Baldwin used bluffing tactics (like Tancred) to capture the towns of Tell Bashir and Ravendal with minimal force.

Betrayal and torture of Bagrat

Baldwin initially rewarded Bagrat with lordship of Ravendal but later uncovered a plot, hunted Bagrat down, and brutally tortured him.

Alliance with Thoros of Edessa

Hearing of Baldwin's successes, Thoros, the Armenian ruler of Edessa, formed an alliance. They performed a ritual where both stripped and embraced under a shirt, becoming father and adopted son.

Baldwin's campaign against Samosata

Thoros sent Baldwin with an Armenian force to fight his Seljuk rival from Samosata.

Baldwin's opportunism during Edessene plot

On his return, Baldwin discovered a plot by Edessene nobles to assassinate Thoros. He neither helped nor betrayed them, waiting to see the outcome.

Overthrow and death of Thoros

In March 1098, the locals of Edessa rebelled, assassinating Thoros by tearing him to pieces.

Founding of the County of Edessa

Baldwin seized the opportunity, took control of Edessa, and established the first Crusader state, the County of Edessa, with just a hundred men and questionable morality.