Psychology Paper 1 Flashcards

Amygdala

One of the major processing center for emotions. Takes a huge role in regulating the fear response in humans as well as animals. It also attaches specific memories to specific emotions.
May also play a role in disgust emotion
A person with this part missing will still experience the cognitive aspect of an emotion. Meaning they know they SHOULD be scared

The striatum

Receives input from various brain areas

Only sends output to the other components of the Basal Ganglia


Part of the Basal Ganglia

Hippocampus

Responsible for Memory Formation, Spatial Navigation, Emotional Regulation (Specifically responses to stress), Pattern Seperation (Ability to distinguish between simillar experiences or memories), Neurogenesis (New neurons are generated, has to do with learning) also plays a role in converting short term memories to long term memories

Damage to this area can cause Anterograde Amnesia, reduced learning abilities and hyper–activity.

The Insula

Responsible for being able to perceive pain, also responsible for self body awareness (Being aware of your body's needs such as food, hunger etc...). It is also responsible for recognition of emotions.
May also help the amygdala in playing a role with fear or disgust

Prefrontal Cortex

Regulates thoughts, actions and emotions. It is one of the main distinguishers of humans to animals as it allows us to be capable of thought and understanding. Keeps us from making impulsive decisions which may be bad.

Hypothalamus

Produces hormones and maintains homeostasis. Receives signals from the nervous system and releases hormones in order to adapt to different situations, it is the reason we shake when we are cold, this component sends hormones in order to tell our body it is cold.

fMRI – Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Works by detecting larger amounts of blood flow than usual, which only occur in parts of the brain that are currently active
Strengths of Process: Does not use radioactive substances
Records activity in all regions of the brain
Can see what specific parts of the brain are active during tasks, or cognitive processes
Weaknesses: Results are correlational, we can not establish a true cause effect relationship
Like MRIS, are expensive thus sample sizes are small in experiments utilizing this tool

MRI/Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Works by manipulating hydrogen atoms using radiowaves and magnetic fields, by disrupting protons in hydrogen atoms scientists are able to determine the structure of the body around the hydrogen atoms via signals which are released when the atoms go back to their original place after the original source of disruption is turned off.
Strengths of Process: Safe and painless
Differentiates between fat, water, muscle etc...
Can be used for all parts of the body

Weaknesses of Process: Can only do Correlation Research
Can be uncomfortable
Pictures are not real time
Expensive, so sample sizes are usually small

Neuroplasticity

The ability of the brain to develop over time, whether it be due to change over time or genetic causes.

Occurs whenever new things are learnt
Can occur when brain injury happens in order to compensate for lost functions, or maximise remaining ones

Synapse

A connection between a neuron and another neuron

They fade away if they are not used
Some neural networks are stronger than others and thus fade away slower

Synaptic Pruning

Process in which unused synapses fade away.

Neural Network/Neural Circuit

A network of synapses

Dendrites

Receive neurotransmitters from other cells during neurotransmission. Where receptors and the postsynaptic cell are.

Axon

Passes messages away from the cell body to other neurons

Electrical Impulses/Action Potentials

Travels down the axon of a neuron

Myelin Sheath

Covers axon of some neurons, speeds up neural impulses

Axonal Terminals

Where neurotransmission takes place. Neurotransmitters are released from here. These are located on the presynaptic cell.

Agonist

Drugs that occupy receptors and activate them

Antagonists

Drugs that occupy receptors but do not activate them. They block receptor activation by agonists

SSRI's – Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors

A treatment used for disorders such as OCD and depression. They are antagonists that instead prevent the reuptake of serotonin.

Neurotransmission (Process)

1. Neurotransmitters are stored in a neurons terminal buttons

2. Once an electrical impulse reaches the axonal terminal, they are released

3. They cross the synaptic gap (very small gap in which the impulse is transmitted by neurotransmitters)

4. They fit into receptor sites located on the postsynaptic cell

5. After this, leftover neurotransmitters are either broken down by an enzyme or go back into the axon terminals in a process called reuptake

Neurotransmitter

A chemical substance that is released at the end of a nerve fiber by the arrival of an electrical impulse. It allows the impulse to travel to another nerve fibre, muscle fibre or other structure by defusing across the synaptic gap

These are always agonists for receptor sites

Reuptake

A process in which leftover neurotransmitters go back into the axon terminals from which they came.

Synaptic Gap

The gap that neurotransmitters must cross in order to get to the postsynaptic cell from the presynaptic cell

Receptor

Hold sites that neurotransmitters FIT INTO, these lie on the postsynaptic cell

Presynaptic Cell

The cell neurotransmitters are released from. This cell holds axonal terminals.

Postsynaptic Cell

The cell neurotransmitters travel to, after being released from the presynaptic cell. This cell is also where receptor sites are, and is a part of a dendrite

Scopolamine

An antagonist to acetylcholine. Based on Antonova 2011 it is presumed to act as an antagonist to acetylcholine and prevent it from activating receptors in the hippocampus by binding to receptors and converting short term memories to long term memories.

Acetylcholine

An excitator for the conversion of short term memories to long term memories in the hippocampus. Based on antonova 2011 and other studies, it is shown to be antagonized by scopolamine.

GABA

One of the most important inhibitory neurotransmitters in the brain. Inhibits neural activity in the hippocampus and the frontal lobe.
GABA inhibits thinking, intrusive thoughts, for some reason higher concentrations link to higher level of cognitive function.

Excitatory Neurotransmitter

Increases the likelihood of a neuron firing by depolarizing the neuron.

Inhibitory Neurotransmitter

Decreases the likelihood of a neuron firing by hyperpolarizing the neuron

Oxytocin

Produced by the hypothalamus, secreted by pituitary glands.

Known as the cuddle/love hormone

Plays a role in mother–child attachment and social bonding as well as trust


This is not a neurotransmitter however as it is released from the endocrine system, and not from the presynaptic neurons

Testosterone

Produced by endocrine system
Maintains sexual functions
Males have 7 times more around
Increases muscle mass
Maintain bone strength

Pheromone

A chemical substance released into the environment by an animal, affecting the behaviour or psychology of its own species.

Androstadienone

Found in male sweat. Studies show this pheromone increases the attraction of a recipient

MHC – Major Histocompatibility Complex

Group of genes that code for proteins found on the surfaces of cells that help the immune system recognize foreign substances

Serotonin

An inhibitory neurotransmitter, helps regulate sleep patterns, sexuality, mood etc...

Endocrine System

Made up of all the body's different hormones, regulates all biological processes in the body from conception to adulthood and into old age

Long Term Potentiation

Process involving strengthening of synapses which leads to long lasting increase in signal transmission between neurons.

Pituitary Gland

Part of the endocrine system, this gland is responsible for the release of oxytocin as well as other hormones having to do with the growth/maturing of your body.

Monozygotic Twins

Twins that originate from the same egg, these types of twins will have the same genomes, and are always the same gender.

Dizygotic Twins

Twins that do not originate from the same egg, these types of twins can be of different genders, and will not necessarily have the same genomes.

Allele

Any alternative form of a gene that may occur, they arise from mutation and are found at the same place on a chromosome

5–HTT Gene

Plays a role in the reuptake of serotonin within the brain. Having two short 5–HTT genes implies you are more susceptible to developing depression due to your environment. It is a serotonin transporter

Having two long ones means depression is less likely to be expressed due to your environment.


Having one short and one long is an in between


The mutation of this gene is the one with two short alleles


Relevant Study: Caspi et al 2003

The MAOA Gene

Provides instructions for making of enzyme called monoamine oxidase A. This enzyme is part of a family that break down neurotransmitters when signaling is no longer needed.


Thought to also play a role in violent and aggressive behaviour, lack of presence of this gene has been linked to antisocial and violent behaviour

Diathesis Stress Theory

Predicts that an individual's reaction to stressful events depends on their genetic makeup. If an individual has a genotype predispositioned towards a disorder, interaction with stressors within the environment may cause these genes to be expressed.

Biological Preparedness

The fear of certain things due to how we have evolved in order to minimize danger to ourselves.

Cognitive Misers

The choice to not actively process information because we want to save time and effort. Using mental shortcuts to make decisions because of knowledge, motivation and economy.


The theory that because the human mind is overloaded with information, Humans think in simpler and less effortful ways when solving problems

Can be beneficial but can also be negative.

One example is stereotyping which is a consequence of this.

Primacy Effect

Initial items are most effectively stored in long term memory because of the greater amount of processing devoted to them. ____ is reduced when items are presented quickly. Enhanced when presented slowly.


This effect happens as rehearsal allows the memories in the short term memory store to move into the long term memory store, and via retrieval, allows these long term memories to be retrieved back into the short term memory store when needed.

Recency Effect

The tendency to remember things at the end of a series, according to the multiple store memory model this is because recent things are still in the short term memory store, and hence have not been displaced by other information.

Serial Position Effect

Recall accuracy that varies as a function based on an item's position within a study list


Our tendency to remember information that is at the beginning or end of a series (Mix of Primacy and Recency Effect)

Multi Store Model of Memory Theory

The theory that states memory has multiple stores. In this theory short term memory is converted to long term via rehearsal, and Long term memory is retrieved into the short term memory via retrieval/recallation.

Working Memory Model

Focused more on short term memory
Suggests that short term memory has multiple stores
Can be considered as a sort of extension for the multi store model of memory.
Central Executive is the key component
Directs attention to tasks and problem solves
Allocates information to different sub–systems
Phonological Loop
Phonological store – Inner ear, holds words that are heard
Articulatory Process – Holds words heard or seen

Visuo – Spatial Sketchpad

Holding and manipulating visual information is the role of this part.

Episodic Buffer

Dedicated to linking information across domains to form integrated units of information with time sequencing.

Also maintains a sense of time.


Kind of like a temporary store that connects a long term memory between short term memory/working memory.

LTM's are long and hence can have multiple "episodes", the episodic buffer stores the next "episode" (or scene) before playing them out. For example when replaying a music video, you recall it in short sequences, not the full 1 minute video, this is as a result of the episodic buffer playing each sequence.



Sort of like a backup store for memory before it is put into LTM. In addition to this when memory from LTM is recalled it is "downloaded" or goes into the episodic buffer after which it is sent to the central executive.

Central Executive

Responsible for bringing attention to something in the working memory model. It is what allows us to concentrate on things. Also modality free. This means that sensory information is either sent to the visuospatial sketchpad, or the phenological loop based on whether it is visual or audial

Job of this part is attention control, this occurs in two ways:

Automatic level - based on habits. Controlled by stimuli in the environment and rely on schema in long term memory. When a stimuli is observed the schema will be activated and a persons muscle memory/automatic habit will be performed. I.e. walking home and taking the same path every day.

Supervisory attention level - Deals with planning and decision making and creates new strategies when old ones no longer work; also involved in situations where self regulation is necessary. Basically considers alternative plans of actions. This attention level occurs when stimuli does not trigger a schema that allows an individual to utilise their muscle memory i.e. implicit memory/procedural memory (which is memory needed to perform learned skills).

Phonological loop

Serves to temporarily hold verbal information heard. Auditory processing takes place here as well


Has two parts:


Articulatory control process: acts like an inner voice, rehearses information from phonological store

Phonological Store: Verbal/Audial information is stored here. Kind of like the inner ear. Receives and stores spoken words for up to 2 seconds.

Schema Theory

A theory about how the mind structures information
It theorizes there are different schemas associated with different subjects

Assimilation

A cognitive process that manages how we take in information and incorporate it into our existing knowledge. Modifying your current schema by adding new information that is itself modified to be congruent with the schema.

Accommodation

What occurs when new information or experiences cause you to modify your existing schemas. Modification of current schema by changing the actual schema, rather than the new information added via levelling or sharpening. This results in a change in the actual schema so that it is congruent with the new information, not a change in the memory added.

System 2 thinking

Thinking that takes effort
Not intuition

System 1 thinking

Thinking that doesn't take effort, very quick

Heuristics

Cognitive Biases, simple and efficient rules that guide decision making

Anchoring Effect/Heuristics

The idea that we use pre–existing data as a reference point for all subseqeunt data, which can skew our decision–making processes.

Reconstructive Memory

Based on the idea that memories are not saved as complete coherent wholes
Retrieval of memory is influenced by perception, beliefs, past experience, cultural factors, and context
Schema influence what we encode and what we retrieve from memory
Bartlett argued we add to things we retrieve that is how interpretation works.

Misinformation effect

The tendency for post event information to interfere with the memory of the original event

Levelling

One of the ways assimilation occurs, it is the act of ”downplaying” or removing certain details from a memory. Depends on different biases and previous schemas.


_____ is basically when irrelevant facts are omitted from a story when one is retelling it after hearing it.

Sharpening

One of the ways assimilation occurs, it is the act of adding, or exaggerating certain details in a memory. Depends on our different biases and previous schemas

Flashbulb Memory

Vivid long–lasting memory about a surprising or shocking event. The idea that the more emotion indulged in an emotion, the more effectively and accurately it is recalled.

Propranolol

Antagonist to Adrenaline, Blocks receptor sites in the postsynaptic cell in order to prevent adrenaline from being released.

Special Mechanism Hypothesis

Argues for the existence of special biological memory mechanisms that when triggered by an event exceeding any critical levels of surprise, create a permanent record of details and circumstances surrounding the experience.


Different from ordinary memories.

Importance Driven Model of Flash Bulb Memories

The idea that in addition to the special mechanism hypothesis, the amount of personal consequence that a person has undergone at a certain point in time is also a critical variable that plays a role in whether one will create and maintain a flash bulb memory of that certain moment in time.

Culture

Made up of a set of attitudes, behaviours and symbols shared by a large group of people, and usually communicated from one generation to the next. Cultural groups are characterized by different norms and convections

Emic Approach

An Inside Perspective, Focus is on one culture, Subjective and Experiential, Emphasis is on uniqueness of the culture. More of a Relativistic approach

Etic Approach

An Outside Perspective, Focus is across cultures, Objective, Looking for universal behaviours, Emphasis on similarities and differences between cultures. More of a Universalistic approach

Cultural Dimensions

The values within a culture that influence behaviour and cognition as well as guide behaviour.

Individualism

Seeing yourself as independent of a social group. Preference for independence and self reliance.

Collectivism

Seeing yourself as dependent of a social group. Considered shameful to act outside of the benefit of the whole group.

Individualism and Collectivism

Degree/Extent to which people in a society are integrated into groups and feel a sense of dependence to them.

Enculturation

Process of adopting or internalizing the schemas of your culture


Process by which people learn the necessary and appropriate skills and norms in the context of their culture.

Cultural norms

The rules which indicate expected behaviour in a group

Dyadic participatory learning

Process of children learning in partnership with an adult

Vertical Transmission

Passing of cultural knowledge from parents to children

Apprenticeship

A type of enculturation in which highly structured guidance from someone of the older generation of a culture on a certain topic teaches a younger person about cultural norms and hierarchy indirectly. Even though the main goal is to teach a certain skill, the guidance from a person of the older generation indirectly teaches the younger person of the social hierarchy and norms of a culture.

Acculturation

The changing of a person's behavior and characteristics as a result of contact between different cultures

Assimilation

An acculturation strategy


Individuals adopt the norms of new culture and do not maintain heritage culture identity

Acculturative Stress/Culture Shock

Psychological impact of adaptation to a new culture

Social Identity Theory

The way someone thinks about themselves and evaluates themselves in relation to other groups. States that the way someone thinks about themselves and their sense of who they are is based on membership of social groups.

Social Categorization

The process by which we identify which groups we belong to and which we do not

Social Identification

Process of adapting norms of the group and taking on the characteristics of the group.

Superordinate goal

Goal achieved by the contribution and coordination of two or more people

Realistic Conflict Theory

Groups working with each other generate attitudes towards each other. Groups in competition for scarce resources will generate prejudice against each other.

Positively Independent

Groups that work together towards superordinate/common goals. These groups will have good intergroup relationships

Negatively Independent

Groups that are in competition for scarce resources. These groups create ethnocentric attitudes.

Intergroup hostility

The amount of tension/hatred between two different groups solely due to the difference in social categorization.

Social Cognitive Theory

The belief that we learn behaviours from observing actions of people in their environment

Modeling

Learning through the observation of other people. Behaviours are imitated if desirable consequences are observed


Basically learning through imitation and observation. In order for modeling to occur behaviours must be consistent.

Vicarious Reinforcement

Imitating other's behaviours after seeing others getting a reward for the same behaviour. A style of learning through observation

Social Learning

Occurs when 4 conditions are met, observers pay attention, they retent what they see (i.e they remember what they have seen) they are motivated and want to reproduce the observed behaviour and they are physically or mentally able to carry out the behaviours.