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Plato's Two-Layered Universe
A philosophical concept consisting of the world of Forms (eternal, perfect, unchanging) and the world of appearances (physical, imperfect, constantly changing).
World of Forms
The ultimate reality in Plato's philosophy, characterized as eternal, perfect, and unchanging.
World of Appearances
The material world in Plato's philosophy, seen as a flawed copy of the world of Forms.
Socrates' Refusal to Escape
Socrates' decision to accept his death sentence, demonstrating his commitment to virtue and reason.
Justice and Truth
Concepts that Socrates believes belong to the higher world of Forms.
Crito
A dialogue by Plato in which Socrates discusses his refusal to escape from his death sentence.
Descartes' Meditations
A philosophical work by Descartes that indirectly defends Galileo by discussing the mathematical laws governing the natural world.
Heliocentrism
The astronomical model that places the Sun at the center of the universe, promoted by Galileo.
Luther's Priesthood of the Believer
A concept emphasizing individual interpretation and reasoning over traditional authority, influencing Descartes' philosophy.
Ontological Argument
Descartes' argument for God's existence, claiming that the idea of a perfect being must include existence as a necessary perfection.
Innate Ideas
The belief that some ideas, like the concept of God, are placed in us by God himself.
Ontology
The study of being and existence, including what it means for something to exist.
Metaphysics
The branch of philosophy that studies reality, existence, and the fundamental nature of things beyond physical observation.
Epistemology
The study of knowledge, including its nature, sources, and limits.
Rationalism
The belief that reason and logic are the primary sources of knowledge, rather than sensory experience.
Empiricism
The belief that knowledge comes from experience and observation, rather than pure reason.
Anthropological Question of Socrates
What is the best way for a human to live?
Ethical Question of Socrates
What is virtue, and how should we act?
Why Socrates Rejects Euthyphro's Definitions of Piety
Every definition fails to capture the essence of piety and instead gives examples or subjective opinions rather than a universal definition.
Why Socrates is the Wisest Man
Fully aware he knows nothing
Why Socrates Calls Himself a Gadfly
He provokes and challenges Athenian society, just as a gadfly stirs a horse into action.
Obligation to the Law
He has lived under Athenian law and must respect it.
Moral Integrity
Escaping would contradict his commitment to justice.
Harm to His Soul
Fleeing would corrupt his soul by acting unjustly.
Explanation of the Three Reasons
If people obey laws only when convenient, laws become meaningless. A person committed to virtue must not betray their principles. The soul is more important than the body, and acting unjustly damages it.
Is Descartes a Skeptic?
No, he uses skepticism as a method, not a belief system.
Role of Skepticism in Descartes' Philosophy
He starts by doubting everything (methodic doubt) to find an undeniable foundation for knowledge (Cogito, ergo sum - 'I think, therefore I am').
Three Types of Thoughts (Descartes)
Innate Ideas, Adventitious Ideas, Fictitious Ideas.
Innate Ideas
Ideas that exist in the mind from birth (e.g., God, logic).
Adventitious Ideas
Ideas that come from external experiences (e.g., sense perceptions).
Fictitious Ideas
Ideas that the mind creates (e.g., imaginary creatures).
Two Terms Descartes Uses Instead of Galileo's "Book of Spirit" & "Book of Nature"
Res Cogitans (Thinking Substance) - The mind/soul, which thinks and understands.
Res Extensa (Extended Substance) - The physical/material world, governed by mathematical laws
Explanation of Res Cogitans and Res Extensa
Res Cogitans represents rational thought, consciousness, and the non-physical self. Res Extensa describes the material world, which operates under physical and mathematical principles.
