Chapter 24: The West and the World

What was the consequence of industrialization that was seen in both Europe and North America in the 19th century? Use an example here!

Industrialization started to significantly widen the gap between very industrialized nations and nations that were soon-to-be colonized or semi-colonized regions.

For example, before 1913, the income per person in Great Britain was very similar. But after this, it started significantly significantly rising as industry advanced, allowing GB to easily colonize other regions that weren’t as developed.

As European nations greatly improved their industries, it also meant that they had many more products. What did they do with these excess products? (Use GB as an example using TWO different dates)!

Many nations saw an increase in international trade.

For example, Great Britain became a leading exporter of cotton textiles; by 1820, they were exporting almost 50 percent of its production, with 33% going to Europe and only 6% going to India, given that it also had a well-established industry and strong trading networks.

HOWEVER, by 1850, this completely changed. Since many European nations became heavily industrialized, it was India buying 25% and Europe only buying 16%. This was because within Europe, many protective tariffs were being implemented, whereas in India, that couldn’t happen since it was a British colony.

Besides just industrialization within a country, what else promoted international trade? (use an example!)

It was transportation! For example, when railroads were built, they decreased transportation costs and opened up economic opportunities, especially in Latin America, Asia, and Africa, when they connected ports to inland resources.

What impact did steam have on international trade? Why?

Steam allowed tons of transport to take place across the sea! In the 1860s, it became common for people and resources to travel from nation-to-nation in a very short amount of time. Then, because so many people were using steam ships, it allowed ports to become improved and more efficient, also helping to decrease the price in goods.

Did the world see an increase in a variety of goods? Or, was it just the “most-popular” goods that were traded? Why?

The world saw an increase in many NEWER goods, like jute, rubber, cotton, and coconut oil. This was because of improved transportation, which enabled entrepreneurs to exploit new territories.

Give an example of how technology improved the flow of goods across the globe…

The creation of the telegraph was constantly used throughout the 1880s, which enabled communiation between continents. For example, when transporting goods across the Atlantic, it was common to already have a buyer set up in another nation.

Why did Europe look to China in the early 19th century? (big reason here :D)

It was because China had exported more products to Europe than it received and it was carefully regulated by the Quin Dynasty, which required that all “exporting” merchants had to live in the southern port of Canton and only trade with licensed Chinese merchants (not outside people!).

How did Great Britain overcome the harsh rules set on by the _____ ______ in China?

Qing Dynasty; They used opium grown in India and smuggled it into China, where its use and sale was illegal. By 1836, its demand in Canton grew so rapidly, that people were demanding the creating of a British colony within China, which would allow more opium to be produced.

What did the Quin Dynasty do in response to British opium sales? (person)

They started to vigorously prosecute the rise in Chinese drug dealers.

In 1839, for example, the dynasty sent Lin Zexu into Canton to punish anyone who purchased opium and also seized it from British merchants. He even sent a letter to Queen Victoria, justifying his policy of curbing opium trade.

After the influence of Lin Zexu in China, how did the people of Britain respond?

Many people looked to London for support and demanded help from the government. As a result, Great Britain used troops stationed in India to take control of the seas and set up ports during the first Opium War. Since China was so dependent on opium, it supported this movement.

In the Treaty of Nanking, China was forced to cede Hong Kong to Britain, pay 100 million dollars in lost revenue, and open up four large cities with low tariffs with Great Britain.

What happened after the first Opium War?

The disputes continued over the Treaty of Nanking, which led both France and Great Britain to capture Beijing where they burned down the emperor’s summer palace. This sparked the second Opium War. And, through one-sided treaties similar to the Treaty of Nanking, European merchants gained even more freeomds in China, forcing them to accept unfair trade in even more cities.

What was the immediate issue of Japan when Euroeans started roaming its seas in ____? How did America see this?

1825; The 200-year order to drive out all foreigners to promote Japanese culture and tradition was still in effect, so they continued trying to drive out anyone that impeded their culture.

To America, this looked barbaric because it meant the risk of losing resources while traveling the Pacific. It also threatened the profits that new entreprenuers could receive. As a result, America tried to establish commercial relations with Japan when Commondore Matthew Perry sailed into Edo (now Tokyo) in 1853. To prevent exile, he used gunboat diplomacy (threatened his advanced military) to demand negotations with the emperor, essentiall forcing them to agree to a treaty that opened up two ports and trade.

Who was the “big person” in Egypt? What did he do?

It was Muhammed Ali! He was first appointed governor of Egypt in 1805 and created a large army using Egyptian peasants and then had them trained through French and Italian officers. He also reformed the government, utilized more land, and improved communication with Europe. By 1848, Egypt was essentially self-sufficient!

What did Europe do after realizing in ____ that Egypt was becoming VERY self-sufficient?

1848; Europe started to see new opportunities arise. In 1864, more than 50k Europeans lived in the port city of Alexandria as army officers, engineers, doctors, etc. This led to increased foreign investment and influence in Egypt's economy, as European powers sought to control trade routes and resources.

How did ________ ___ in Egypt pay for his ambitious plans?

Muhammed Ali; He mainly used the development of commerical agriculture. Since Egypt had tons of peasants, growing food for their own consumption on these NEWLY FORMED state-owned lands also allowed them to forcefully grow whatever the government wanted. So, on top of growing food for themselves, Ali forced them to grow cash-crops (cotton and rice) to export into European markets.

What happened after Muhammed Ali’s reign? How did Egypt’s tradition change? (ALSO INCLUDE: who picked up after him and in what year!)

Ismail Pasha followed Ali’s reign in 1863. As the prince, he promoted irrigation throughout Europe, which increased crop production. And, since he was educated in France, he had strong connections with them, who helped to create the Suez Canal in 1869.

The Suez Canal greatly influenced Egypt and even transformed its tradition into leaning more European. It was common to see Egyptians become educated IN EUROPE and then use their education to industrialize Egypt, like Cairo.

What was the biggest implication under Ismail Pasha? (aka, how in the WORLD did he pay for all of his contributions)

The biggest implication was that Ismail couldn’t pay for these expensive projects. As a result, he owed French and British commissioners tons of money that he couldn’t pay. This led them to take control of Egypt’s finances and essentially rule it themselves.

In response to this, Egypt experienced a HUGE nationalist surge. In 1879, it created the Egyptian Nationalist Party under Ahmed Arabi. And, when France/Britain tried getting Ismail to abdicate, tons of riots broke out in Alexandria, killing Europeans and forcing the thought-to-be heir of Ismail to flee. Even though there were tons of riots, Britain remained in Egypt.

What happened under the British takeover in Egypt? Was it good/bad?

It was semi-okay. When the British took over, they created tax reforms on citizens, which improved the lives of peasants. However, people still saw Britain as a foreign occupier, so nationalist efforts only increased to try and expel them.

Where did so many people emigrate to?

People primarily went to neo-Europes (North and South America, New Zealnad, Austrialia, and Siberia.

Why did so many Europeans emigrate? (in general)

It was mainly because of overpopulation and the little land that was available in Europe. As children grew up, little economic opportunity and land was available, so they left.

How did British emigration differ from German emigration? (talk about the type of people that left)

In Great Britain, the people that emigrated included not only poverty-striken people but also skilled industrial technicians that sought better opportunities in British colonies.

In Germany, people emigrated very irregularly and very early, about 1830 (compared to GB’s 1890). This was because after 1830, Germany started to rapidly industrialize, which provided enough jobs at home—there was no reason to keep expanding.

Many people emigrated to the United States, like Russian Jews, _____, and ______. What was the effect of this economically for companies that WANTED to transport people across the Atlantic?

Italians and Poles; When millions started to come to the United States, many companies like Cunard, White Star, and Hamburg-America profited by using steamships to transport people. And, even though most people could only afford to be 3rd-class which was unsanitary, cold, and cramped, people still went!

What happened after emigrants reached the United States?

After reaching the US, they would go to Ellis Island to be checked. This took roughly 4-5 hours, during which their health was checked, financial status, and legal documents. If someone were to be sick, they stayed on the island or were sent back home.

Why didn’t Asian emigration flourish as much as European emigration?

It was mainly because of strict immigration laws due to racism. Since nationalism and scientific racism was growing, it created an idea of nativism, where native-born individuals were favored over immigrations. It became incredibly rare to be granted citizen status as an immigrant. For example, in 1882 the United States created the Chinese Exclusion Act, and Austria followed suit in 1901 with the Immigration Restriction Act.

How did non-westerners respond to western expansion?

Generally, the initial response of African and Asian rulers was to try and drive Westerners out (e.g., Japan, China, Sudan). To do this, they often had several conflicts, like the U.S.-Indian Wars. But, because Westerners were incredibly industrialized, they almost always succeeded.

After being beaten in battle, the other option was to preserve their culture at all costs. Others though, like Ismail in Egypt, embraced Western expansion, and believed it was superior to traditional ways.

What was the issue with Western rule? Why was it so difficult to actually “imperialize” another nation?

The issue came with non-compliance. It was difficult to order and control diverse populations who desperately tried preserving their tradition and culture. For example, when colonists demanded extra taxes or crops, the peasants would play dumb and hid some of their harvest or would actively work slower if they were ordered to work.

Besides the citizens who actively opposed western expansion in many areas, why did the leaders of these smaller-underdeveloped nations oppose imperialism?

The leaders often opposed Europeans for two reasons. The first reason came from noncomformist leaders, who valued human dignity, economic freedom, and political independence. The second reason came from what happened IN THE WESTERN WORLD: liberalism and nationalism. Since these leaders experienced European culture, they also discovered liberalism and nationalism, which asserted that people had the right to control their own destiny and govern themselves without foreign intervention.

India was an important place for Great Britain. What was the last response by the existing ruling group to drive them out? (also provide year)

The last response was the Great Rebellion in 1857-58, which was led by Muslim and Hindu mercenaries against British rule. Eventually, the British army was dispersed throughout India which ended this conflict.

How did British rule actually work in India?

India was ruled by the British Parliament in London and led by a tiny, all-white group that was placed in India. This white-elite was generally more nice toward the welfare of the Indian population. However, it did practice job discrimination and social segregation, with most people seeing Indians as inferior.

Specifically, many military leaders saw the Indians as inferior, like Lord Kitchener, who said that no matter how educated or loyal an Indian may become, they can never become an equal to the British officer.

What was the role of European women?

Many European women migrated to India as wives of British officials and soldiers, especially after the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869. Most times, they were tasked with maintaining the household to uphold the British culture.

However, a very small portion of women in India actually sought to help improve the lives of Indian women by promoting education and legislation to move them closer to the conditions they thought women should attain.

What did Britain actually do in India with the people? It’s not like they just told them to sit there 🙂

The British made desperate attempts to westernize Indian society. They ended up creating secondary education with all instruction in English to help Indians serve in government and the army. This allowed many Indians to gain economic opportunities and social advancements.

When skilled Indians emerged, they helped by constructing irrigation projects for agriculture and the third-largest railroad network.

Even though Great Britain’s secondary education system helped some Indians become very successful economically and politically, they could never be equal to a British person. As a result…

As a result, well educated Indians came together to found the Hindu Indian National Congress in 1885, with demands to increase the equality and self-governence of other colonies like Canada and Australia. And throughout time, these demands increased by some radicals. In 1907, some people started calling for Indian independence.

What was the Japanese response to the gunboat diplomacy that was employed by ______ ______ _____?

Commodore Matthew Perry; the samurai (ruled the country) responded with antiforiegn terrorism and assassinations that lasted for five years. Even though American, British, Dutch, and French warships demolished key forts, the samurai continued. In 1867, they were able to seize control of the government in the Meiji Restoration.

What happened within Japan following the Meiji Restoration?

The Meiji reformers ended up taking a Western view on Japan and were convinced that it was indeed superior in its military and industrial aspects. Therefore, they started industrializing and building up a military to catch-up with Europe. To do this, they abolished their feudal system and destroyed their four-class legal system (similar in French Revolution with different Estates).

Then, they created a government-stimulated economy, railroads, and modern factories. Additionally, they created an authoritarian constitution and rejected democracy.

After the Meiji Restoration and its reform efforts, Japan was flourishing by 1890. What did they do next?

They started to copy the idea of imperialism of Western society to prove that they were strong. Using gunboat diplomacy, they claimed parts of Korea and defeated China in the Sino-Japanese War in 1894-95. In the next few years, the constantly clashed with European powers of China, specifically in Manchuria, sparking the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05. By winning this war, they took Russia's Port Arthur and gained control over Korea.

By 1860, the 200-year-old Qing Dynasty was on the verge of collapse. Yet, the government was able to stay alive. What factors helped?

There were two factors. The first factor which saved the Qing Dynasty came from new and effective leadership. They were able to prevent the Tai Ping Rebellion and the remarkable empress, Tzu Hsi helped to maintain that stability.

The reason reason came from lessened foreign aggression, since the Europeans alread established diplomatic and commercial relations.

Even though the Qing Dynasty survived European Imperialism, what started killing it in the 1890s? Then, what happened AFTER?

The Sino-Japanese War with Japan was an incredibly loss for China, which triggered foreign powers to quickly capture helpless cities. After this embarassing loss, China shifted to reform via the Meiji Restoration.

In 1898, this restoration convinced Tzu Hsi to launchb a hundred days of reform to modernize the country. However, because many radical reformers, like Sun Yatsen threatened to overthrow Tzu Hsi, she quickly stopped the reform and imprisoned the emperor.

As a result, this promoted many Chinese people, called Boxers to blame China’s failures on foreign individuals. These people started killing foreigners and several thousand Chinese Christians. Even though the Boxers’ success was semi-successful, the foreign powers worked together to quickly suppress them and took Beijing, forcing China to accept a long list of penalities, like a heavy financial indemnity.

Another reason for imperialism came NOT solely on naked conquest and a Darwinian racial struggle. Instead, this reason was… (includes a general fact, france, and a name)

Mainly out of the fact that Westerners could (and should) civilize more primitive nonwhite people. These “savage” Africans and Asians would therefore, eventually receive the benefits of industrialization, Western education, Christianity, medicine, and higher standards of living.

People thought that imperialism was needed to protect natives from tribal warfare and from harsher forms of exportation by white settlers. In 1899, Rudyard Kipling summarized these ideas in his poem The White Man’s Burden, which urged nations like the United States to capture the Philippines as a moral duty to civilize nonwhites.

How did women play into the role of the white man’s burden?

Even though most of imperialism came from men, they would sometimes bring women to nonwhite nations in an effort to reduce “race mixing” and to promote white people over deemed “savages.” Therefore, many women would work as missionaries, teachers, and nurses while others would accompany their husbands overseas (e.g., India).

Even though Westerners felt superior to non-Western people, they were often fascinated by foreign cultures. What was this term called and who created it? What did he say in relation to it?

This term was known as Orientalism and described by Edward Said. He believed that it was impossible for the people in the West to understand non-Westerners without falling into this Orientalist stereotype.

This stereotype believed that the West was modern while the non-West was primitive. The West was white, rational, and Christian, while the non-west was colored, irrational, and Islamic.

What was the result of Orientalism?

It prompted many people to learn about the mysterious cultures of the non-west. People traveled to these places to study their primitive cultures, trade for (or steal) artifacts, and then have it published in a journal. This is what led to an influx in paintings about the non-west which included ferocious Arab warriors, slave markets, and blatently racist depictions of other cultures.

There were many people that stood against Imperialism, especially by the efforts by the British. Give one example (like hobison)…

One individual was J. A. Hobson who wrote Imperialism, aruging that the rush to acquire colonies was beacuse of economic needs of unregulated capitalism. Hobson stated that only the elite grew richer from imperialism, hurting BOTH the European working-class AND indigenous peoples.

What did Marxist individuals think about Imperialism? (name)

Many people, like Rosa Luxemburg, member of Germany’s SPD, argued that capitalism needed to expand into Asia and Africa to maintain high profits. Vladimir Lenin too, believed that imperialism represented the highest form of monopolistic capitalism and predicted that it could only flourish this high through war/conquest (published in his work Imperialism the Highest Stage of Capitalism)

What was one more example of a critic about Imperialism by Europe (the name here is similar to Congo)?

Another critique came from Joseph Conrad, who wrote Heart of Darkness. In this novel, it talks about Charles Marlow’s journey as a steamboat captain to find an ivory trader named Kurtz, amidts the horrible exploitation that the Belgians raged into Congo, turning this liberal scholar into a savage brute.

What was the cause of this New Imperialism in the 1870s? Why did nations start scrambling to take more land? (use Britain as an example)

The reason many nations started this New Imperialism was because of their flourishing industry that significantly grew. In France and Germany in 1870s, they were industrializing very rapidly behind protective tariffs. This worried Great Britain because the gap between nation power was closing. So to avoid becoming weak, it was common to see nations demonstrate their power by taking other “non-white” nations in Asia and Africa.

Many colonies were, at first, very poor and didn’t actually contribute to their motherland. Why didn’t a country just give up on it?

The reason why countries almost never gave up on their colonies was because of the national security and military power it brought. The more land you had showed nations how powerful your military was. For example, by safeguarding the Suez Canal, the British were able to protect Egypt and in return, were able to seize Sudan.

People also followed the idea of Social Darwinism! If a country was bigger and more powerful, then it was morally correct to seize the inferior country!

What specifically helped European countries imperialize? How exactly were they more powerful industrially?

The reason nations were able to imperialize was because of the strong new weapons they possessed from industry. For example, the Maxim machine gun allowed European armies to easy conquer other nations. Additionally, advanced medicine was able to cure malaria, which previously killed white people in Africa from the mosquitos! Finally, the steamship provided transportation of thousands of people. No longer did they have to travel through pure land—they could use rivers (and fast!).

What did governments do to ensure that its people were okay with getting new colonies? (what was the effect)

Many governments used propaganda to convince its people that these newer colonies would help with capitalism by providing jobs and cheap raw materials to raise the standard of living. Therefore, this heavily increased national unity and fervor!

Where did the British start imperializing in Africa? (after _____)

1885; The British started at the southern tip and was led by Cecil Rhodes. The British started by colonizing the two Afrikaner states (Orange Free State and the Transvaal) and then established independent colonies in present-day Botswana, Zimbabwe, and Zambia.

After establishing these colonies, Cecil Rhodes set up gold mines in Transvaal, which prompted the Boer War. After a series of defeats, the British sent 180k troops to southern Africa, finallying suppressing the Afrikaners by burning crops and villages, forcing Afrikaners into concentration camps.

Note: this provoked liberal outrage at home in Britain!

After the Boer War, where else did the British go? What happened?

The British started to imperialize the Sudanese city of Khartoum, especially after the Muslim Sudanese started massacring British individuals. Under Herbert Kitchener, a British force moved southward via the Nile River and built a railway to supply the army.

Then, in 1898, they were able to capture and suppress the Sudanese in the Battle of Omdurman mainly through the Maxim Machine gun.

Where else did Kitchener lead his troops after he took Sudanese territories and southern Afrikaner states?

He continued his march southward and arrived at Fashoda, which had been ruled by the French. This led to tensions between the British and French, known as the Fashoda Incident. However, because France had bad stability after the Dreyfus Affairs, they backed down, allowing Kitchener to take the land.

Who started capturing Africa first? (essentially, who (two people) prompted the scramble?)

It was King Leopold II of Belgium who started in 1860s by taking control of the Congo Free State and then Great Britain who was able to hold a great influence in Egypt in 1882. Both of these nations had significant influence on France, Germany, and Italy to rapidly take Africa.

What was the process of Leopold II in taking parts of Africa? (give me his process) (also say who this immediately influenced!)

Leopold ended up sending Henry Stanley, a journalist and explorer, into the Congo. From there, he established trading stations and signed unfair treaties with the African chiefs, and even planted the Belgium flag.

This quickly alarmed the French, who sent out an expedition under Pierre de Brazza, who also signed an unfair treaty with a local African chief north of the Congo River.

What happened in _____ after people started catching-wind of what was happening by the Belgians and French in Africa? Why was Bismarck so critical in this meeting?

1884; The Berlin Conference was held after Jules Ferry and Otto von Bismarck arranged for European countries to meet. In this conference had over 10 Western powers, where they set up claims to African territories.

Since Bismarck was heading the conference with Ferry, many European countries could take parts of Africa, like the French taking Senegal, without fear of conflict with other European nations.

How were the conditions in the Congo by King Leopold II?

They were absolutely horrible. The Belgians seized tons of ivory and rubber and through Leopold’s army, named Force Publique, the African people were forced into slavery. Anyone who opposed this ruling was punished by the Force Publique by murder, torture, or dismembering.

What did people think of Leopold II’s acitons in the Congo after (explain how people found out) people found out?

People first found out about the horrific conditions of the African people in the Congo when Christian missionaries began to report it back to the Europe. As a result, a public scandal occurred which led to the formation of the Congo Reform Association. This association forced Leopold II in 1908 to end his rule, disbanding the Force Publique.