The Ultimate AP U.S. History Exam Flashcard Study Guide

A comprehensive set of flashcards covering key historical concepts, events, and terms across various periods of U.S. History for exam preparation.

Columbian Exchange

Refers to the widespread transfer of plants, animals, culture, human populations, technology, diseases, and ideas between the Americas (the New World) and the Old World (Afro-Eurasia) in the 15th and 16th centuries, following Christopher Columbus's 1492 voyage.

Encomienda system

A labor system established by the Spanish crown during the colonization of the Americas. It granted conquerors, or encomenderos, the right to demand labor or tribute from Native Americans in a specific area, in return for their protection and Christian instruction. In practice, it often led to brutal exploitation.

Caste system

A rigid social hierarchy in Spanish colonies that categorized individuals based on their racial ancestry and purity of blood (limpieza de sangre). It determined social status, rights, and opportunities, with Europeans at the top, followed by mixed-race individuals, and then Native Americans and Africans at the bottom.

Chesapeake and North Carolina colonies

This region includes Virginia and Maryland. They were known for their plantation economy, primarily growing tobacco, and relied heavily on indentured servants and later enslaved Africans for labor.

New England colonies

This region includes Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, and New Hampshire. Predominantly settled by Puritans seeking religious freedom, they established communities centered around towns, family farms, and a diversified economy including fishing, shipbuilding, and trade, with less reliance on large-scale slavery compared to the South.

Middle colonies

This region includes New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Delaware. They were known for their fertile lands, producing large quantities of grain (the "breadbasket" colonies), and attracted a diverse array of European immigrants, fostering greater religious tolerance and cultural pluralism.

Colonies of the southern Atlantic coast and the British West Indies

This region includes South Carolina, Georgia, and the island colonies like Barbados. They developed highly profitable plantation economies focused on labor-intensive staple crops such such as rice, indigo, and sugar. These areas relied almost exclusively on enslaved African labor, leading to large enslaved populations and unique African American cultural formations.

Mercantilism

An economic theory and practice, dominant in Europe from the 16th to the 18th century, that promoted governmental regulation of a nation's economy for the purpose of augmenting state power at the expense of rival national powers. It involved the belief that a nation's wealth was measured by its supply of gold and silver, seeking to achieve a favorable balance of trade (exports exceeding imports) and often relying on colonies as sources of raw materials and markets for finished goods.

Metacom’s War (King Philip’s War)

A major conflict in 1675-1678 between Native American inhabitants of New England and New England colonists and their Native American allies. Led by Metacom (known to the English as King Philip), a Wampanoag sachem, it was one of the deadliest wars in Puritan America, profoundly shaping the relationship between colonists and Native Americans.

Pueblo Revolt

An uprising of indigenous Pueblo people against Spanish colonizers in the province of Santa Fe de Nuevo México in 1680. The revolt killed 400 Spaniards and drove the remaining 2,000 settlers out of the province. Twelve years later, the Spaniards returned and were able to re-conquer New Mexico with little opposition, though they were forced to be more accommodating to Pueblo culture and religion.

Chattel slavery

A system of slavery in which enslaved people are treated as personal property (chattel) of the owner and can be bought, sold, traded, or inherited. This form of slavery was particularly brutal as it denied enslaved individuals any legal rights or status as human beings, often extending enslavement to their offspring. It was legally established in the British colonies to perpetual terms, forming the basis of racial slavery.

First Great Awakening

A Protestant religious revival that swept through the American colonies in the 1730s and 1740s. It emphasized individual religious experience over church doctrine, creating a sense of shared American identity, challenging established religious authority, and fostering greater religious diversity.

Anglicization

The process by which the colonies became more and more like England culturally, politically, and economically. This included adopting English legal systems, customs, language, and consumer goods, despite developing distinctive self-governing traditions.

Republican motherhood

An 18th-century concept that described the ideal role of women in the American republic. It held that women played a crucial role in raising virtuous citizens who would uphold republican ideals, giving them a new, albeit domestic, political significance.

Daughters of Liberty

A patriotic organization formed by women during the American Revolution who supported the boycott of British goods and spun homemade fabrics to avoid purchasing British cloth.

Proclamation of 1763

Issued by the British government after the French and Indian War, it prohibited colonists from settling west of the Appalachian Mountains. It was intended to prevent further conflicts with Native Americans, but angered colonists who felt they had a right to the land.

Pontiac’s Rebellion

A Native American uprising in 1763 led by Pontiac, an Ottawa chief, against British expansion into the Ohio Valley after the French and Indian War. It highlighted the ongoing tensions between colonists and Native Americans and contributed to the British decision to issue the Proclamation of 1763.

Sugar Act (1764)

British tax on imported sugar and other goods, aimed at raising revenue from colonies and curbing smuggling. It marked a shift from regulating trade to raising revenue.

Quartering Act (1765)

Required colonies to provide barracks and supplies for British troops, further irritating colonists who saw it as an infringement on their liberties.

Stamp Act (1765)

A direct tax by the British Parliament on printed materials (newspapers, legal documents, playing cards) in the American colonies. It provoked widespread protest, as colonists argued against "taxation without representation."

Declaratory Acts (1766)

Passed by Parliament after repealing the Stamp Act, asserting Parliament’s full power and authority to make laws and statutes binding the colonies "in all cases whatsoever." It signaled Britain's unwillingness to concede any governing authority to the colonies.

The Townshend Acts (1767)

A series of acts passed by the British Parliament imposing duties on goods like glass, lead, paper, paint, and tea imported into the American colonies. These acts were met with colonial boycotts and protests, further escalating tensions.

The Tea Act (1773)

Granted the British East India Company a monopoly on tea sales in the colonies, lowering the price of tea but outraging colonists who saw it as a ploy to force them to accept parliamentary taxation. Led to the Boston Tea Party.

The Intolerable Acts / Coercive Acts (1774)

A series of punitive laws passed by the British Parliament in response to the Boston Tea Party. They closed Boston Harbor, curtailed Massachusetts self-government, and further tightened British control, uniting colonists in opposition.

Battle of Bunker Hill

Fought in June 1775, early in the Revolutionary War. Proved that colonial militia could stand up to British regular troops, though the British won a costly victory, indicating a long and bloody war ahead.

Battle of Saratoga

A decisive American victory in October 1777 during the Revolutionary War, convincing France to openly ally with the United States and providing crucial military and financial aid.

Battle of Yorktown

The final major battle of the American Revolutionary War in October 1781, where a combined force of American and French troops led by George Washington trapped British General Cornwallis, leading to his surrender and effectively ending the war.

John Locke: natural rights

An influential Enlightenment philosopher whose ideas about natural rights (life, liberty, and property) and the government's obligation to protect them heavily influenced American revolutionary thought and the Declaration of Independence.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau: social contract

An Enlightenment philosopher who articulated the concept of the social contract, meaning that legitimate government authority comes from the consent of the governed, a concept fundamental to American republicanism.

Thomas Paine’s Common Sense

A highly influential pamphlet published in 1776 that argued passionately for American independence from British rule, using plain language to appeal to common colonists and galvanize public support for revolution.

Declaration of Independence

The formal statement, adopted by the Continental Congress on July 4, 1776, announcing the secession of 13 North American colonies from Great Britain and explaining the justifications for doing so. It articulated principles of natural rights, popular sovereignty, and individual liberty.

Battle of Lexington and Concord

The first military engagements of the American Revolutionary War, fought on April 19, 1775, marking the start of armed conflict between Great Britain and its thirteen colonies.

Republican motherhood

An 18th-century concept that described the ideal role of women in the American republic. It held that women played a crucial role in raising virtuous citizens who would uphold republican ideals, giving them a new, albeit domestic, political significance.

Daughters of Liberty

A patriotic organization formed by women during the American Revolution who supported the boycott of British goods and spun homemade fabrics to avoid purchasing British cloth.

Abigail Adams

Wife of John Adams, notable for her early advocacy for women's rights and her influential correspondence with her husband during the Revolutionary War, urging him to "Remember the Ladies."

Articles of Confederation

The first constitution of the United States, adopted in 1781. It established a weak central government with limited powers, primarily relying on state sovereignty, which proved ineffective in addressing post-war economic and political challenges.

Shay’s Rebellion

An armed uprising in Western Massachusetts from 1786 to 1787, led by Daniel Shays, a Revolutionary War veteran. Farmers, burdened by debt and high taxes, protested against foreclosures. The rebellion highlighted the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation and the need for a stronger national government.

Northwest Ordinance

A landmark act of the Confederation Congress that established a system for admitting new states to the Union, organized the Northwest Territory, guaranteed civil liberties, promoted public education, and prohibited slavery in the territory north of the Ohio River.

Land Ordinance of 1785

A law that established a systematic process for surveying and selling western lands acquired after the Revolutionary War, dividing them into townships and sections, setting a pattern for orderly settlement.

Constitutional Convention

A gathering of state delegates in 1787 in Philadelphia to revise the Articles of Confederation. Instead, they drafted an entirely new Constitution, establishing a stronger federal government and addressing the weaknesses of the Articles.

The Great Compromise

Also known as the Connecticut Compromise, it resolved the dispute between large and small states over legislative representation at the Constitutional Convention. It proposed a bicameral legislature, with proportional representation in the House of Representatives and equal representation for each state in the Senate.

Three-Fifths Compromise

An agreement reached during the Constitutional Convention in 1787 that determined three-fifths of the enslaved population would be counted for both direct taxation and representation in the House of Representatives. This increased the political power of Southern states.

Anti-Federalists

A political faction that opposed the ratification of the U.S. Constitution, arguing that it granted too much power to the federal government at the expense of state and individual liberties. They advocated for a Bill of Rights.

Federalists

A political faction that supported the ratification of the U.S. Constitution, advocating for a strong central government to ensure stability and national unity. Key figures included Alexander Hamilton and James Madison.

Federalist Papers

A series of 85 essays written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay to promote the ratification of the United States Constitution. These essays explained and defended the proposed Constitution to the public, especially in New York.

Bill of Rights

The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1791. It guarantees fundamental rights and freedoms to individuals, such as freedom of speech, religion, and assembly, and places explicit limits on government power. The promise of its addition was crucial for securing the Constitution's ratification.

Federalism

A system of government in which power is divided between a central (federal) government and individual state governments. Both levels of government have their own distinct powers and responsibilities, promoting a balance between national unity and local autonomy.

Separation of powers

The division of governmental responsibilities into distinct branches (legislative, executive, judicial) to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful. This system, along with checks and balances, is designed to protect liberty.

Proclamation of Neutrality (1793)

Issued by President George Washington, declaring the United States a neutral nation in the conflict between France and Great Britain. It aimed to keep the young nation out of European wars.

The Jay Treaty (1794)

A controversial treaty between the U.S. and Great Britain that sought to resolve outstanding issues from the Treaty of Paris (1783), avert war, and facilitate trade. While it avoided war, it was unpopular among Republicans for being too pro-British.

XYZ Affair (1798)

A diplomatic incident between French and United States diplomats that resulted in a limited, undeclared war known as the Quasi-War. French officials demanded bribes from American envoys to negotiate, leading to widespread anti-French sentiment in the U.S.

The Pinckney Treaty (1795)

Also known as the Treaty of San Lorenzo, it established intentions of friendship between the United States and Spain. It defined the boundaries of the United States with Spanish colonies and guaranteed the United States navigation rights on the Mississippi River.

Battle of Fallen Timbers (1794)

A decisive victory for the U.S. Army over a confederacy of Native Americans in the Northwest Territory, which led to the Treaty of Greenville and opened vast tracts of land for American settlement.

Charles Willson Peale, Pierre-Charles L’Enfant, Gilbert Stuart

Prominent artists and architects of the early republic who contributed to developing a national cultural identity through portraits of founding fathers, city planning (L'Enfant for Washington D.C.), and patriotic art.

Suffrage for all white men and growth of political parties

Refers to the expansion of voting rights to include all adult white males regardless of property ownership, a key development in the move towards a more democratic political system during this period. This also coincided with the development of more organized political parties.

New religious and intellectual movements: The Second Great Awakening, Transcendentalism

Significant movements that reshaped American cultural and spiritual life. The Second Great Awakening was a Protestant revival that inspired widespread reform, while Transcendentalism was a philosophical movement emphasizing individualism, nature, and self-reliance.

Erie Canal, Cotton Gin, Telegraph, Interchangeable Parts

Key innovations: The Erie Canal facilitated trade and settlement; the Cotton Gin revolutionized cotton production and reinforced slavery; the Telegraph improved communication; and interchangeable parts streamlined manufacturing, contributing to the Market Revolution.

The Federalists and the Democratic-Republicans

The two dominant political parties in the early republic. Federalists, led by Hamilton, advocated for a strong central government and industrial growth. Democratic-Republicans, led by Jefferson, favored agrarianism, states' rights, and limited federal power.

Marbury v Madison

A landmark Supreme Court case (1803) that established the principle of judicial review, affirming the Supreme Court's authority to declare an act of Congress unconstitutional.

Fletcher v Peck, McCulloch v Maryland, Gibbons v Ogden

Important Supreme Court cases under Chief Justice John Marshall that strengthened the power of the federal government and the judiciary. Fletcher v. Peck asserted the Supreme Court's right to declare state laws unconstitutional. McCulloch v. Maryland affirmed the constitutionality of the national bank and federal supremacy over state laws. Gibbons v. Ogden confirmed the federal government's authority to regulate interstate commerce.

Louisiana Purchase

The acquisition of approximately 828,000 square miles of territory from France in 1803 for 15 million. It doubled the size of the United States and significantly expanded Jefferson's vision of an agrarian republic, despite constitutional questions.

Lewis and Clark Expedition

An exploratory mission (1804-1806) commissioned by President Thomas Jefferson to map the newly acquired Louisiana Purchase territory, explore the Missouri River, and find a water route to the Pacific Ocean. It provided valuable information about the geography, ecology, and Native American tribes of the West.

American System

A plan proposed by Henry Clay in the early 19th century consisting of three main parts: a tariff to protect and promote American industries; a national bank to foster commerce; and federal subsidies for roads, canals, and other internal improvements to develop profitable markets for agriculture.

The Second Bank of the United States

Chartered in 1816, it was a national bank that aimed to regulate the nation's currency and credit supply. It became a point of contention between Jacksonian Democrats, who saw it as an illegitimate extension of federal power and a tool of financial elites, and Whigs, who supported its role in economic stability.

Missouri Compromise (1820)

Congressional agreement that admitted Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state simultaneously, maintaining the balance of power between slave and free states. It also prohibited slavery in the Louisiana Purchase territory north of the 36^\circ30' parallel, temporarily easing sectional tensions.

War of 1812

A military conflict between the United States and Great Britain, fought from 1812 to 1815. It was provoked by British impressment of American sailors, interference with American trade, and support for Native American resistance. Although militarily inconclusive, it fostered a stronger sense of American nationalism and confirmed U.S. sovereignty.

Monroe Doctrine (1823)

A U.S. foreign policy statement that warned European nations against further colonization or intervention in the Americas (Western Hemisphere), while also pledging that the U.S. would not interfere in European affairs. It asserted U.S. dominance in the Western Hemisphere.

Market revolution

A drastic change in the manual labor system originating in the South (and soon spreading to the North) of the United States and later to the entire world during the first half of the 19th century. It involved fundamental shifts in how goods were produced and exchanged, moving from local subsistence economies to a national, interconnected market economy, driven by new technologies and transportation.

Erie Canal

A man-made waterway completed in 1825 connecting the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean via the Hudson River. It dramatically reduced transport costs, stimulated economic growth in New York City, and facilitated westward expansion and trade between the East and the Midwest.

Lancaster Turnpike

One of the first successful long-distance paved roads in the United States, completed in 1795, connecting Philadelphia and Lancaster, Pennsylvania. It set a precedent for future toll roads.

Cotton gin

An invention by Eli Whitney in 1793 that quickly and easily separates cotton fibers from their seeds. This invention rapidly increased the profitability of cotton, which in turn significantly expanded cotton production and the demand for enslaved labor in the South.

Two-Party System

The development of two dominant political parties (e.g., Democrats and Whigs during this period) that compete for power. This system emerged as American democracy expanded, engaging a wider electorate and structuring political debates.

Indian Removal Act (1830)

Legislation signed into law by President Andrew Jackson that authorized the forced displacement of Native American tribes from their ancestral lands in the southeastern United States to Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma).

Cherokee Nation v Georgia (1831)

A Supreme Court case where the Cherokee Nation sought to prevent Georgia from enacting laws that infringed upon Cherokee sovereignty. Chief Justice John Marshall ruled that the Cherokee Nation was a "domestic dependent nation" not a foreign state, diminishing their legal standing in U.S. courts but acknowledging some inherent rights.

Trail of Tears

The forced removal of several Native American nations (Cherokee, Muscogee, Seminole, Chickasaw, Choctaw) from their ancestral lands in the southeastern United States to Indian Territory in the 1830s, primarily under the Indian Removal Act. The forced marches resulted in the deaths of thousands of Native Americans from disease, starvation, and exposure.

Romanticism

This cultural movement emphasized emotion, intuition, and individualism, diverging from the Enlightenment’s focus on reason. In America, it inspired transcendentalists and authors like Emerson and Thoreau.

Utopian Societies

Experimental communities established with the aim of creating a perfect society, often based on communal living, religious principles, or social reform. Examples like the Shakers and Oneidas sought to offer alternatives to mainstream American society.

Second Great Awakening

A Protestant religious revival movement that spread throughout the United States in the early 19th century. Characterized by emotional camp meetings and widespread conversions, it fostered new denominations, inspired social reforms, and emphasized personal salvation and moral responsibility.

New Denominations: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints led by Joseph Smith

A religious movement, also known as Mormonism, founded by Joseph Smith in the 1830s. It emphasized new revelations and communitarian principles, representing a significant outcome of the Second Great Awakening's religious fervor.

Temperance

A social movement highly popular in the 19th century that advocated for the reduction or complete prohibition of alcohol consumption, believing it led to social ills. Organizations like the American Temperance Society were instrumental.

Movement for Public Asylums

A reform effort championed by figures like Dorothea Dix, advocating for more humane treatment and institutional care for the mentally ill, as well as reforms in prisons.

Public Education

A movement led by Horace Mann advocating for universally accessible, publicly funded education. It aimed to create informed citizens, assimilate immigrants, and reduce social inequality.

Abolitionist

A person who advocated for the complete and immediate end to slavery. The abolitionist movement gained strength in the antebellum period, with diverse tactics ranging from moral persuasion to political action and aiding runaway slaves.

William Lloyd Garrison

A prominent American abolitionist, journalist, and social reformer who published the influential anti-slavery newspaper The Liberator and advocated for immediate emancipation without compensation.

Frederick Douglass

A former slave who became a leading abolitionist, orator, and writer. His autobiographies and powerful speeches exposed the horrors of slavery and advocated for freedom and equality.

Harriet Tubman

An escaped enslaved woman who became a famous "conductor" on the Underground Railroad, leading hundreds of enslaved people to freedom in the North.

Sojourner Truth

An abolitionist and women's rights activist who was born into slavery. She delivered her famous "Ain't I a Woman?" speech, advocating for the rights of both African Americans and women.

Women’s rights movement

A social movement in the 19th century that advocated for greater political, economic, and social equality for women, including suffrage, property rights, and educational opportunities.

Seneca Falls Convention

The first women's rights convention in the United States, held in Seneca Falls, New York, in 1848. It produced the "Declaration of Sentiments," modeled after the Declaration of Independence, demanding equal rights for women, including the right to vote.

Sarah and Angelina Grimke

Sisters from a slaveholding family in South Carolina who became prominent abolitionists and early advocates for women's rights, linking the two causes.

Lucretia Mott

A Quaker abolitionist and women's rights activist who helped organize the Seneca Falls Convention.

Elizabeth Cady Stanton

A leading figure in the early women's rights movement, organizer of the Seneca Falls Convention, and primary author of the "Declaration of Sentiments," advocating for women's suffrage and other rights.

Nat Turner

An enslaved African American who led a slave rebellion in Southampton County, Virginia, in 1831, killing approximately 60 white men, women, and children. The rebellion terrified the South, leading to stricter slave codes and increased fear of slave insurrections.

Denmark Vesey

A free black man in Charleston, South Carolina, who allegedly planned one of the largest slave rebellions in U.S. history in 1822. The plot was exposed, and Vesey and many co-conspirators were executed.

Election of 1860 and secession of Southern states

The election of Abraham Lincoln, a Republican committed to preventing the expansion of slavery, without any Southern electoral votes, triggered the secession of several Southern states (starting with South Carolina) from the Union, directly leading to the Civil War.

California Gold Rush

A period of feverish migration of fortune-seekers to California in 1848-1849 following the discovery of gold. It led to a rapid population boom, economic diversification, and California's quick admission as a state, intensifying debates over slavery's expansion.

Manifest Destiny

A widely held belief in the 19th century United States that American settlers were destined to expand across North America. It involved a sense of divine right and a mission to spread democracy and capitalism, often justifying westward expansion, land acquisition, and the displacement of Native Americans.

Oregon Territory, Texas

Key territories acquired by the U.S. in the 1840s, embodying Manifest Destiny. The Oregon Territory was gained through diplomatic settlement with Britain (1846), and Texas was annexed in 1845 after a period as an independent republic, intensifying the conflict over slavery with Mexico.

Commodore Perry and the Kanagawa Treaty

Commodore Matthew Perry's expedition to Japan in 1853-1854, which resulted in the Treaty of Kanagawa. This treaty opened Japan to limited trade with the United States, ending Japan's period of isolation and marking its entry into modern international relations.

Mexican-American War (1846-1848)

A conflict between the United States and Mexico, primarily over the annexation of Texas and the U.S. desire for California and other Mexican territories. The U.S. victory resulted in a massive expansion of American territory and intensified the debate over the expansion of slavery.