The Ultimate AP U.S. History Exam Flashcard Study Guide
Period 1: 1491-1607
AP Exam Weighting: 4-6%
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
1.1 Contextualizing Period 1
Explain the context for European encounters in the Americas from 1491 to 1607.
A) As native populations migrated and settled across the vast expanse of North America over time, they developed distinct and increasingly complex societies by adapting to and transforming their diverse environments.
B) Contact among Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans resulted in the Columbian Exchange and significant social, cultural, and political changes on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean.
Columbian Exchange: Refers to the widespread transfer of plants, animals, culture, human populations, technology, diseases, and ideas between the Americas (the New World) and the Old World (Afro-Eurasia) in the 15th and 16th centuries, following Christopher Columbus's 1492 voyage.
Thematic Focus: Geography and the Environment (GEO)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
1.2 Native American Societies Before European Contact
Explain how and why various native populations in the period before European contact interacted with the natural environment in North America.
A) The spread of maize cultivation from present-day Mexico northward into the present-day American Southwest and beyond supported economic development, settlement, advanced irrigation, and social diversification among societies.
B) Societies responded to the aridity of the Great Basin and the grasslands of the western Great Plains by developing largely mobile lifestyles.
C) In the Northeast, the Mississippi River Valley, and along the Atlantic seaboard, some societies developed mixed agricultural and hunter-gatherer economies that favored the development of permanent villages.
D) Societies in the Northwest and present-day California supported themselves by hunting and gathering and, in some areas, developed settled communities supported by the vast resources of the ocean.
Thematic Focus: America in the World (WOR)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
1.3 European Exploration in the Americas
Explain the causes of exploration and conquest of the New World by various European nations.
A) European nations’ efforts to explore and conquer the New World stemmed from a search for new sources of wealth, economic and military competition, and a desire to spread Christianity.
Thematic Focus: Geography and the Environment (GEO)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
1.4 Columbian Exchange, Spanish Exploration, and Conquest
Explain causes of the Columbian Exchange and its effect on Europe and the Americas during the period after 1492.
A) The Columbian Exchange brought new crops from the Americas to Europe, stimulating European population growth, and new sources of mineral wealth, which facilitated the shift from feudalism to capitalism.
B) Improvements in maritime technology and more organized methods for conducting international trade, such as joint-stock companies, helped drive changes to economies in Europe and the Americas.
Joint-stock companies: Business entities where different stocks can be bought and owned by shareholders. Each shareholder owns company stock in proportion to their investment. This allowed for pooling large amounts of capital for grand ventures like colonization.
C) Spanish exploration and conquest of the Americas were accompanied and furthered by widespread deadly epidemics that devastated native populations and by the introduction of crops and animals not found in the Americas.
Thematic Focus: Social Structures (SOC)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
1.5 Labor, Slavery, and Caste in the Spanish Colonial System
Explain how the growth of the Spanish Empire in North America shaped the development of social and economic structures over time.
A) In the encomienda system, Spanish colonial economies marshaled Native American labor to support plantation-based agriculture and extract precious metals and other resources.
Encomienda system: A labor system established by the Spanish crown during the colonization of the Americas. It granted conquerors, or encomenderos, the right to demand labor or tribute from Native Americans in a specific area, in return for their protection and Christian instruction. In practice, it often led to brutal exploitation.
B) European traders partnered with some West African groups who practiced slavery to forcibly extract slave labor for the Americas. The Spanish imported enslaved Africans to labor in plantation agriculture and mining.
C) The Spanish developed a caste system that incorporated and carefully defined the status of the diverse population of Europeans, Africans, and Native Americans in their empire.
Caste system: A rigid social hierarchy in Spanish colonies that categorized individuals based on their racial ancestry and purity of blood (limpieza de sangre). It determined social status, rights, and opportunities, with Europeans at the top, followed by mixed-race individuals, and then Native Americans and Africans at the bottom.
Thematic Focus: America in the World (WOR)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
1.6 Cultural Interactions Between Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans
Explain how and why European and Native American perspectives of others developed and changed in the period.
A) In their interactions, Europeans and Native Americans asserted divergent worldviews regarding issues such as religion, gender roles, family, land use, and power.
B) Mutual misunderstandings between Europeans and Native Americans often defined the early years of interaction and trade as each group sought to make sense of the other. Over time, Europeans and Native Americans adopted some useful aspects of each other’s culture.
C) As European encroachments on Native Americans’ lands and demands on their labor increased, native peoples sought to defend and maintain their political sovereignty, economic prosperity, religious beliefs, and concepts of gender relations through diplomatic negotiations and military resistance.
D) Extended contact with Native Americans and Africans fostered a debate among European religious and political leaders about how non-Europeans should be treated, as well as evolving religious, cultural, and racial justifications for the subjugation of Africans and Native Americans.
Period 2: 1607-1754
AP Exam Weighting: 6-8%
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
2.1 Contextualizing Period 2
Explain the context for the colonization of North America from 1607 to 1754.
A) Europeans developed a variety of colonization and migration patterns, influenced by different imperial goals, cultures, and the varied North American environments where they settled, and they competed with each other and American Indians for resources.
B) The British colonies participated in political, social, cultural, and economic exchanges with Great Britain that encouraged both stronger bonds with Britain and resistance to Britain’s control.
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
2.2 European Colonization
Explain how and why various European colonies developed and expanded from 1607 to 1754.
A) Spanish efforts to extract wealth from the land led them to develop institutions based on subjugating native populations, converting them to Christianity, and incorporating them, along with enslaved and free Africans, into Spanish colonial society.
B) French and Dutch colonial efforts involved relatively few Europeans and relied on trade alliances and intermarriage with American Indians to build economic and diplomatic relationships and acquire furs and other products for export to Europe.
C) English colonization efforts attracted a comparatively large number of male and female British migrants, as well as other European migrants, who sought social mobility, economic prosperity, religious freedom, and improved living conditions. These colonists focused on agriculture and settled on land taken from Native Americans, from whom they lived separately.
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
2.3 The Regions of British Colonies
Explain how and why environmental and other factors shaped the development and expansion of various British colonies that developed and expanded from 1607 to 1754.
A) The Chesapeake and North Carolina colonies grew prosperous exporting tobacco—a labor-intensive product initially cultivated by white, mostly male indentured servants and later by enslaved Africans.
Chesapeake and North Carolina colonies: This region includes Virginia and Maryland. They were known for their plantation economy, primarily growing tobacco, and relied heavily on indentured servants and later enslaved Africans for labor.
B) The New England colonies, initially settled by Puritans, developed around small towns with family farms and achieved a thriving mixed economy of agriculture and commerce.
New England colonies: This region includes Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, and New Hampshire. Predominantly settled by Puritans seeking religious freedom, they established communities centered around towns, family farms, and a diversified economy including fishing, shipbuilding, and trade, with less reliance on large-scale slavery compared to the South.
C) The middle colonies supported a flourishing export economy based on cereal crops and attracted a broad range of European migrants, leading to societies with greater cultural, ethnic, religious diversity, and tolerance.
Middle colonies: This region includes New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Delaware. They were known for their fertile lands, producing large quantities of grain (the "breadbasket" colonies), and attracted a diverse array of European immigrants, fostering greater religious tolerance and cultural pluralism.
D) The colonies of the southern Atlantic coast and the British West Indies used long growing seasons to develop plantation economies based on exporting staple crops. They depended on the labor of enslaved Africans, who often constituted the majority of the population in these areas and developed their own forms of cultural and religious autonomy.
Colonies of the southern Atlantic coast and the British West Indies: This region includes South Carolina, Georgia, and the island colonies like Barbados. They developed highly profitable plantation economies focused on labor-intensive staple crops such such as rice, indigo, and sugar. These areas relied almost exclusively on enslaved African labor, leading to large enslaved populations and unique African American cultural formations.
E) Distance and Britain’s initially lax attention led to the colonies creating self-governing institutions that were unusually democratic for the era. The New England colonies based power in participatory town meetings, which in turn elected members to their colonial legislatures; in the southern colonies, elite planters exercised local authority and also dominated the elected assemblies.
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
2.4 Transatlantic Trade
Explain causes and effects of transatlantic trade over time.
A) An Atlantic economy developed in which goods, as well as enslaved Africans and American Indians, were exchanged between Europe, Africa, and the Americas through extensive trade networks. European colonial economies focused on acquiring, producing, and exporting commodities that were valued in Europe and gaining new sources of labor.
B) Continuing trade with Europeans increased the flow of goods in and out of American Indian communities, stimulating cultural and economic changes and spreading epidemic diseases that caused radical demographic shifts.
C) The British government increasingly attempted to incorporate its colonies into a coherent, hierarchical, and imperial structure in order to pursue mercantilist economic aims, but conflicts with colonists and American Indians led to erratic enforcement of imperial policies.
Mercantilism: An economic theory and practice, dominant in Europe from the 16th to the 18th century, that promoted governmental regulation of a nation's economy for the purpose of augmenting state power at the expense of rival national powers. It involved the belief that a nation's wealth was measured by its supply of gold and silver, seeking to achieve a favorable balance of trade (exports exceeding imports) and often relying on colonies as sources of raw materials and markets for finished goods.
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
2.5 Interactions Between American Indians and Europeans
Explain how and why interactions between various European nations and American Indians changed over time.
A) Interactions between European rivals and American Indian populations fostered both accommodation and conflict. French, Dutch, British, and Spanish colonies allied with and armed American Indian groups, who frequently sought alliances with Europeans against other native groups.
B) British conflicts with American Indians over land, resources, and political boundaries led to military confrontations, such as Metacom’s War (King Philip’s War) in New England.
Metacom’s War (King Philip’s War): A major conflict in 1675-1678 between Native American inhabitants of New England and New England colonists and their Native American allies. Led by Metacom (known to the English as King Philip), a Wampanoag sachem, it was one of the deadliest wars in Puritan America, profoundly shaping the relationship between colonists and Native Americans.
C) American Indian resistance to Spanish colonizing efforts in North America, particularly after the Pueblo Revolt, led to Spanish accommodation of some aspects of American Indian culture in the Southwest.
Pueblo Revolt: An uprising of indigenous Pueblo people against Spanish colonizers in the province of Santa Fe de Nuevo México in 1680. The revolt killed 400 Spaniards and drove the remaining 2,000 settlers out of the province. Twelve years later, the Spaniards returned and were able to re-conquer New Mexico with little opposition, though they were forced to be more accommodating to Pueblo culture and religion.
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
2.6 Slavery in the British Colonies
Explain the causes and effects of slavery in the various British colonial regions.
A) All the British colonies participated to varying degrees in the Atlantic slave trade due to the abundance of land and a growing European demand for colonial goods, as well as a shortage of indentured servants. Small New England farms used relatively few enslaved laborers, all port cities held significant minorities of enslaved people, and the emerging plantation systems of the Chesapeake and the southern Atlantic coast had large numbers of enslaved workers, while the great majority of enslaved Africans were sent to the West Indies.
B) As chattel slavery became the dominant labor system in many southern colonies, new laws created a strict racial system that prohibited interracial relationships and defined the descendants of African American mothers as black and enslaved in perpetuity.
Chattel slavery: A system of slavery in which enslaved people are treated as personal property (chattel) of the owner and can be bought, sold, traded, or inherited. This form of slavery was particularly brutal as it denied enslaved individuals any legal rights or status as human beings, often extending enslavement to their offspring. It was legally established in the British colonies to perpetual terms, forming the basis of racial slavery.
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
2.7 Colonial Society and Culture
Explain how and why the movement of a variety of people and ideas across the Atlantic contributed to the development of American culture over time.
A) The presence of different European religious and ethnic groups contributed to a significant degree of pluralism and intellectual exchange, which were later enhanced by the first Great Awakening and the spread of European Enlightenment ideas.
First Great Awakening: A Protestant religious revival that swept through the American colonies in the 1730s and 1740s. It emphasized individual religious experience over church doctrine, creating a sense of shared American identity, challenging established religious authority, and fostering greater religious diversity.
B) The British colonies experienced a gradual Anglicization over time, developing autonomous political communities based on English models with influence from intercolonial commercial ties, the emergence of a transatlantic print culture, and the spread of Protestant evangelicalism.
Anglicization: The process by which the colonies became more and more like England culturally, politically, and economically. This included adopting English legal systems, customs, language, and consumer goods, despite developing distinctive self-governing traditions.
Thematic Focus: American and National Identity (NAT)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
2.8 Diverging Goals of European Leaders and Colonists
Explain how and why the different goals and interests of European leaders and colonists affected how they viewed themselves and their relationship with Britain.
A) The goals and interests of European leaders and colonists at times diverged, leading to a growing mistrust on both sides of the Atlantic. Colonists, especially in British North America, expressed dissatisfaction over issues including territorial settlements, frontier defense, self-rule, and trade.
B) Colonists’ resistance to imperial control drew on local experiences of self-government, evolving ideas of liberty, the political thought of the Enlightenment, greater religious independence and diversity, and an ideology critical of perceived corruption in the imperial system.
Period 3: 1754-1800
AP Exam Weighting: 10-17%
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
3.1 Contextualizing Period 3
Explain the context in which America gained independence and developed a sense of national identity.
A) British attempts to assert tighter control over its North American colonies and the colonial resolve to pursue self-government led to a colonial independence movement and the Revolutionary War.
B) The American Revolution’s democratic and republican ideals inspired new experiments with different forms of government.
C) Migration within North America and competition over resources, boundaries, and trade intensified conflicts among peoples and nations.
Thematic Focus: America in the World (WOR)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
3.2 The Seven Years’ War (The French and Indian War)
Explain the causes and effects of the Seven Years’ War.
A) Colonial rivalries intensified between Britain and France in the mid-18th century, as the growing population of the British colonies expanded into the interior North America, threatening French-Indian trade networks and American Indian autonomy.
B) Britain achieved a major expansion of its territory holdings by defeating the French but at tremendous expense, setting the stage for imperial efforts to raise revenue and consolidate control over the colonies.
C) After the British victory, imperial officials’ attempts to prevent colonies from moving westward generated colonial opposition, while natives sought to both continue trading with Europeans and resist the encroachments of colonists on tribal lands.
Proclamation of 1763: Issued by the British government after the French and Indian War, it prohibited colonists from settling west of the Appalachian Mountains. It was intended to prevent further conflicts with Native Americans, but angered colonists who felt they had a right to the land.
Pontiac’s Rebellion: A Native American uprising in 1763 led by Pontiac, an Ottawa chief, against British expansion into the Ohio Valley after the French and Indian War. It highlighted the ongoing tensions between colonists and Native Americans and contributed to the British decision to issue the Proclamation of 1763.
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
3.3 Taxation Without Representation
Explain how British colonial policies regarding North America led to the Revolutionary War.
A) The imperial struggles of the mid-18th century, as well as new British efforts to collect taxes without direct colonial representation or consent and to assert imperial authority in the colonies, began to unite the colonists against perceived and real constraints on their economic activities and political rights.
Sugar Act (1764): British tax on imported sugar and other goods, aimed at raising revenue from colonies and curbing smuggling. It marked a shift from regulating trade to raising revenue.
Quartering Act (1765): Required colonies to provide barracks and supplies for British troops, further irritating colonists who saw it as an infringement on their liberties.
Stamp Act (1765): A direct tax by the British Parliament on printed materials (newspapers, legal documents, playing cards) in the American colonies. It provoked widespread protest, as colonists argued against "taxation without representation."
Declaratory Acts (1766): Passed by Parliament after repealing the Stamp Act, asserting Parliament’s full power and authority to make laws and statutes binding the colonies "in all cases whatsoever." It signaled Britain's unwillingness to concede any governing authority to the colonies.
The Townshend Acts (1767): A series of acts passed by the British Parliament imposing duties on goods like glass, lead, paper, paint, and tea imported into the American colonies. These acts were met with colonial boycotts and protests, further escalating tensions.
The Tea Act (1773): Granted the British East India Company a monopoly on tea sales in the colonies, lowering the price of tea but outraging colonists who saw it as a ploy to force them to accept parliamentary taxation. Led to the Boston Tea Party.
The Intolerable Acts / Coercive Acts (1774): A series of punitive laws passed by the British Parliament in response to the Boston Tea Party. They closed Boston Harbor, curtailed Massachusetts self-government, and further tightened British control, uniting colonists in opposition.
Battle of Bunker Hill: Fought in June 1775, early in the Revolutionary War. Proved that colonial militia could stand up to British regular troops, though the British won a costly victory, indicating a long and bloody war ahead.
Battle of Saratoga: A decisive American victory in October 1777 during the Revolutionary War, convincing France to openly ally with the United States and providing crucial military and financial aid.
Battle of Yorktown: The final major battle of the American Revolutionary War in October 1781, where a combined force of American and French troops led by George Washington trapped British General Cornwallis, leading to his surrender and effectively ending the war.
American and National Identity (NAT)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
3.4 Philosophical Foundations of the American Revolution
Explain how and why colonial attitudes about government and the individual changed in the years leading up to the American Revolution.
A) Enlightenment ideas and philosophy inspired many American political thinkers to emphasize individual talent over hereditary privilege, while religion strengthened Americans’ view of themselves as a people blessed with liberty.
John Locke: natural rights: An influential Enlightenment philosopher whose ideas about natural rights (life, liberty, and property) and the government's obligation to protect them heavily influenced American revolutionary thought and the Declaration of Independence.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau: social contract: An Enlightenment philosopher who articulated the concept of the social contract, meaning that legitimate government authority comes from the consent of the governed, a concept fundamental to American republicanism.
B) The colonists’ belief in the superiority of republican forms of government based on the natural rights of the people found expression in Thomas Paine’s Common Sense and the Declaration of Independence. The ideas in these documents resonated throughout American history, shaping Americans’ understanding of the ideals on which the nation was based.
Thomas Paine’s Common Sense: A highly influential pamphlet published in 1776 that argued passionately for American independence from British rule, using plain language to appeal to common colonists and galvanize public support for revolution.
Declaration of Independence: The formal statement, adopted by the Continental Congress on July 4, 1776, announcing the secession of 13 North American colonies from Great Britain and explaining the justifications for doing so. It articulated principles of natural rights, popular sovereignty, and individual liberty.
Thematic Focus: America in the World (WOR)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
3.5 The American Revolution
Explain how various factors contributed to the American victory in the Revolution.
A) Despite considerable Loyalist opposition, as well as Great Britain’s apparently overwhelming military and financial advantages, the Patriot cause succeeded because of the actions of colonial militias and the Continental Army, George Washington’s military leadership, the colonists’ ideological commitment and resilience, and assistance sent by European allies.
B) Important Battles:
Battle of Lexington and Concord: The first military engagements of the American Revolutionary War, fought on April 19, 1775, marking the start of armed conflict between Great Britain and its thirteen colonies.
THEMATIC FOCUS: Social Structures (SOC)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
3.6 The Influence of Revolutionary Ideals
Explain the various ways the American Revolution impacted society.
A) During and after the American Revolution, an increased awareness of the inequalities in society motivated some individuals and groups to call for the abolition of slavery and greater political democracy in the new state and national governments.
B) In response to women's participation in the American Revolution, Enlightenment ideas, and women’s appeals for expanded roles, an ideal of “republican motherhood” gained popularity. It called on women to teach republican values within the family and granted women a new importance in American political culture.
Republican motherhood: An 18th-century concept that described the ideal role of women in the American republic. It held that women played a crucial role in raising virtuous citizens who would uphold republican ideals, giving them a new, albeit domestic, political significance.
Daughters of Liberty: A patriotic organization formed by women during the American Revolution who supported the boycott of British goods and spun homemade fabrics to avoid purchasing British cloth.
Abigail Adams: Wife of John Adams, notable for her early advocacy for women's rights and her influential correspondence with her husband during the Revolutionary War, urging him to "Remember the Ladies."
America in the World (WOR)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
3.7 The Articles of Confederation
Explain how different forms of government developed as a result of the Revolutionary Period.
A) Many new state constitutions placed power in the hands of the legislative branch and maintained property qualifications for voting and citizenship.
B) The Articles of Confederation unified the newly independent states, creating a central government with limited power. After the Revolution, difficulties over international trade, finances, interstate commerce, foreign relations, and internal unrest led to calls for a stronger central government.
Articles of Confederation: The first constitution of the United States, adopted in 1781. It established a weak central government with limited powers, primarily relying on state sovereignty, which proved ineffective in addressing post-war economic and political challenges.
Shay’s Rebellion: An armed uprising in Western Massachusetts from 1786 to 1787, led by Daniel Shays, a Revolutionary War veteran. Farmers, burdened by debt and high taxes, protested against foreclosures. The rebellion highlighted the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation and the need for a stronger national government.
C) As settlers moved westward during the 1780s, Congress enacted the Northwest Ordinance for admitting new states; the ordinance promoted public education, the protection of private property, and a ban on slavery in the Northwest territory.
Northwest Ordinance of 1787: A landmark act of the Confederation Congress that established a system for admitting new states to the Union, organized the Northwest Territory, guaranteed civil liberties, promoted public education, and prohibited slavery in the territory north of the Ohio River.
Land Ordinance of 1785: A law that established a systematic process for surveying and selling western lands acquired after the Revolutionary War, dividing them into townships and sections, setting a pattern for orderly settlement.
Thematic Focus: Politics and Power (PCE)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
3.8 The Constitutional Convention and Debates over Ratification
Explain the differing ideological positions on the structure and function of the federal government.
A) Delegates from the states participated in the Constitutional Convention and through negotiation, collaboration, and compromise proposed a Constitution.
Constitutional Convention: A gathering of state delegates in 1787 in Philadelphia to revise the Articles of Confederation. Instead, they drafted an entirely new Constitution, establishing a stronger federal government and addressing the weaknesses of the Articles.
The Great Compromise: Also known as the Connecticut Compromise, it resolved the dispute between large and small states over legislative representation at the Constitutional Convention. It proposed a bicameral legislature, with proportional representation in the House of Representatives and equal representation for each state in the Senate.
B) The Constitutional Convention compromised over the representation of slave states in Congress and the role of the federal government in regulating both slavery and the slave trade, allowing the prohibition of the international slave trade after 1808.
Three-Fifths Compromise: An agreement reached during the Constitutional Convention in 1787 that determined three-fifths of the enslaved population would be counted for both direct taxation and representation in the House of Representatives. This increased the political power of Southern states.
C) In the debate over ratifying the Constitution, Anti-Federalists opposing ratification battled with Federalists, whose principles were articulated in the Federalist Papers (primarily written by Alexander Hamilton and James Madison). Federalists ensured the ratification of the Constitution by promising the addition of a Bill of Rights that enumerated individual rights and explicitly restricted the powers of the federal government.
Anti-Federalists: A political faction that opposed the ratification of the U.S. Constitution, arguing that it granted too much power to the federal government at the expense of state and individual liberties. They advocated for a Bill of Rights.
Federalists: A political faction that supported the ratification of the U.S. Constitution, advocating for a strong central government to ensure stability and national unity. Key figures included Alexander Hamilton and James Madison.
Federalist Papers: A series of 85 essays written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay to promote the ratification of the United States Constitution. These essays explained and defended the proposed Constitution to the public, especially in New York.
Bill of Rights: The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1791. It guarantees fundamental rights and freedoms to individuals, such as freedom of speech, religion, and assembly, and places explicit limits on government power. The promise of its addition was crucial for securing the Constitution's ratification.
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
3.9 The Constitution
Explain the continuities and changes in the structure and functions of the government with the ratification of the Constitution.
A) Delegates from the states participated in the Constitutional Convention that created a limited but dynamic central government embodying federalism and providing for a separation of powers between its three branches.
Federalism: A system of government in which power is divided between a central (federal) government and individual state governments. Both levels of government have their own distinct powers and responsibilities, promoting a balance between national unity and local autonomy.
Separation of powers: The division of governmental responsibilities into distinct branches (legislative, executive, judicial) to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful. This system, along with checks and balances, is designed to protect liberty.
Thematic Focus: America in the World (WOR)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
3.10 Shaping a New Republic
Explain how and why competition intensified conflicts among peoples and nations from 1754 to 1800.
A) The US government forged diplomatic initiatives aimed at dealing with the continued British and Spanish presence in North America, as US settlers migrated beyond the Appalachians and sought free navigation of the Mississippi River.
B) War between France and Britain resulting from the French Revolution presented challenges to the US over issues of free trade and foreign policy and fostered political disagreement.
Proclamation of Neutrality (1793): Issued by President George Washington, declaring the United States a neutral nation in the conflict between France and Great Britain. It aimed to keep the young nation out of European wars.
The Jay Treaty (1794): A controversial treaty between the U.S. and Great Britain that sought to resolve outstanding issues from the Treaty of Paris (1783), avert war, and facilitate trade. While it avoided war, it was unpopular among Republicans for being too pro-British.
XYZ Affair (1798): A diplomatic incident between French and United States diplomats that resulted in a limited, undeclared war known as the Quasi-War. French officials demanded bribes from American envoys to negotiate, leading to widespread anti-French sentiment in the U.S.
C) The Spanish, supported by the bonded labor of the local American Indians, expanded their mission settlements into California; these provided opportunities for social mobility among soldiers and led to new cultural blending.
The Pinckney Treaty (1795): Also known as the Treaty of San Lorenzo, it established intentions of friendship between the United States and Spain. It defined the boundaries of the United States with Spanish colonies and guaranteed the United States navigation rights on the Mississippi River.
D) An ambiguous relationship between the federal government and native tribes contributed to problems regarding treaties and American Indian legal claims relating to the seizure of their lands.
Battle of Fallen Timbers (1794): A decisive victory for the U.S. Army over a confederacy of Native Americans in the Northwest Territory, which led to the Treaty of Greenville and opened vast tracts of land for American settlement.
Politics and Power (PCE)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
3.11 Developing an American Identity
Explain the continuities and changes in American culture from 1754 to 1800.
A) New forms of national culture developed in the United States alongside regional variations.
B) Ideas about national identity increasingly found expression in works of art, literature, and architecture.
Charles Willson Peale, Pierre-Charles L’Enfant, Gilbert Stuart: Prominent artists and architects of the early republic who contributed to developing a national cultural identity through portraits of founding fathers, city planning (L'Enfant for Washington D.C.), and patriotic art.
Thematic Focus: Migration and Settlement (MIG)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
3.12 Movement in the Early Republic
Explain how and why migration and immigration to and within North America caused competition and conflict over time.
A) Various American Indian groups repeatedly evaluated and adjusted their alliances with Europeans, other tribes, and the United States, seeking to limit migration of white settlers and maintain control of tribal lands and natural resources. British alliances with American Indians contributed to tensions between the US and Britain.
B) As increasing numbers of migrants from North America and other parts of the world continued to move westward, frontier cultures that had emerged in the colonial period continued to grow, fueling social, political, and ethnic tensions.
Social Structures (SOC)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
3.13 Regional Attitudes Toward Slavery
Explain the continuities and changes in regional attitudes about slavery as it expanded from 1754 to 1800.
A) The expansion of slavery in the deep South and adjacent western lands and rising anti-slavery sentiment began to create distinctive regional attitudes towards slavery.
Period 4: 1800-1848
AP Exam Weighting: 10-17%
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
4.1 Contextualizing Period 4
Explain the context in which the republic developed from 1800 to 1848.
A) The United States began to develop a modern democracy and celebrated a new national culture while Americans sought to define the nation’s democratic ideals and change their society and institutions to match them.
Suffrage for all white men and growth of political parties: Refers to the expansion of voting rights to include all adult white males regardless of property ownership, a key development in the move towards a more democratic political system during this period. This also coincided with the development of more organized political parties.
New religious and intellectual movements: The Second Great Awakening, Transcendentalism: Significant movements that reshaped American cultural and spiritual life. The Second Great Awakening was a Protestant revival that inspired widespread reform, while Transcendentalism was a philosophical movement emphasizing individualism, nature, and self-reliance.
B) Innovations in technology, agriculture, and commerce powerfully accelerated the American economy, precipitating profound changes to US society and to national and regional identities.
Erie Canal, Cotton Gin, Telegraph, Interchangeable Parts: Key innovations: The Erie Canal facilitated trade and settlement; the Cotton Gin revolutionized cotton production and reinforced slavery; the Telegraph improved communication; and interchangeable parts streamlined manufacturing, contributing to the Market Revolution.
C) The US interest in increasing foreign trade and expanding its national borders shaped the nation’s foreign policy and spurred government and private initiatives.
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
4.2 The Rise of Political Parties and the Era of Jefferson
Explain the causes and effects of policy debates in the early republic.
A) In the early 1800s, national political parties continued to debate issues such as the tariff, powers of the federal government, and relations with European powers.
The Federalists and the Democratic-Republicans: The two dominant political parties in the early republic. Federalists, led by Hamilton, advocated for a strong central government and industrial growth. Democratic-Republicans, led by Jefferson, favored agrarianism, states' rights, and limited federal power.
B) Supreme Court decisions established the primacy of the judiciary in determining Constitutional meaning and asserted that federal laws took precedence over state laws.
Marbury v Madison: A landmark Supreme Court case (1803) that established the principle of judicial review, affirming the Supreme Court's authority to declare an act of Congress unconstitutional.
Fletcher v Peck, McCulloch v Maryland, Gibbons v Ogden: Important Supreme Court cases under Chief Justice John Marshall that strengthened the power of the federal government and the judiciary. Fletcher v. Peck asserted the Supreme Court's right to declare state laws unconstitutional. McCulloch v. Maryland affirmed the constitutionality of the national bank and federal supremacy over state laws. Gibbons v. Ogden confirmed the federal government's authority to regulate interstate commerce.
C) Following the Louisiana Purchase, the US government sought influence and control over North America through a variety of means, including exploration & diplomatic efforts.
Louisiana Purchase: The acquisition of approximately 828,000 square miles of territory from France in 1803 for 15 million. It doubled the size of the United States and significantly expanded Jefferson's vision of an agrarian republic, despite constitutional questions.
Lewis and Clark Expedition: An exploratory mission (1804-1806) commissioned by President Thomas Jefferson to map the newly acquired Louisiana Purchase territory, explore the Missouri River, and find a water route to the Pacific Ocean. It provided valuable information about the geography, ecology, and Native American tribes of the West.
Thematic Focus: America in the World (WOR)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
4.3 Politics and Regional Interests
Explain how different regional interests affected debates about the role of the federal government in the early republic.
A) Regional interests often trumped national concerns as the basis for many political leaders’ positions on slavery and economic policy.
B) Plans to further unify the US economy, such as the American System, generated debates over whether such policies would benefit agriculture or industry, potentially favoring sections of the country.
American System: A plan proposed by Henry Clay in the early 19th century consisting of three main parts: a tariff to protect and promote American industries; a national bank to foster commerce; and federal subsidies for roads, canals, and other internal improvements to develop profitable markets for agriculture.
The Second Bank of the United States: Chartered in 1816, it was a national bank that aimed to regulate the nation's currency and credit supply. It became a point of contention between Jacksonian Democrats, who saw it as an illegitimate extension of federal power and a tool of financial elites, and Whigs, who supported its role in economic stability.
C) Congressional attempts at political compromise, such as the Missouri Compromise, only temporarily stemmed the growing tensions between opponents and defenders of slavery.
Missouri Compromise (1820): Congressional agreement that admitted Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state simultaneously, maintaining the balance of power between slave and free states. It also prohibited slavery in the Louisiana Purchase territory north of the 36^ ext{o}30' parallel, temporarily easing sectional tensions.
Thematic Focus: Politics and Power (PCE)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
4.4 America on the World Stage
Explain how and why American foreign policy developed and expanded over time.
A) Struggling to create an independent global presence, the United States sought to claim territory throughout the North American continent and promote foreign trade.
War of 1812: A military conflict between the United States and Great Britain, fought from 1812 to 1815. It was provoked by British impressment of American sailors, interference with American trade, and support for Native American resistance. Although militarily inconclusive, it fostered a stronger sense of American nationalism and confirmed U.S. sovereignty.
B) The US government sought influence and control over the Western hemisphere through a variety of means, including military actions, American Indian removal, and diplomatic efforts such as the Monroe Doctrine.
Monroe Doctrine (1823): A U.S. foreign policy statement that warned European nations against further colonization or intervention in the Americas (Western Hemisphere), while also pledging that the U.S. would not interfere in European affairs. It asserted U.S. dominance in the Western Hemisphere.
Thematic Focus: America in the World (WOR)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
4.5 Market Revolution: Industrialization
Explain the causes and effects of innovations in technology, agriculture, and commerce over time.
A) Entrepreneurs helped to create a market revolution in production and commerce, in which market relationships between producers and consumers came to prevail as the manufacture of goods became more organized.
Market revolution: A drastic change in the manual labor system originating in the South (and soon spreading to the North) of the United States and later to the entire world during the first half of the 19th century. It involved fundamental shifts in how goods were produced and exchanged, moving from local subsistence economies to a national, interconnected market economy, driven by new technologies and transportation.
B) Innovations including textile machinery, steam engines, interchangeable parts, the telegraph, and agricultural inventions increased the efficiency of production methods.
C) Legislation & judicial systems supported the development of roads, canals, and railroads, which extended and enlarged markets and helped foster regional interdependence. Transportation networks linked the North and Midwest more closely than they linked regions in the South.
Erie Canal: A man-made waterway completed in 1825 connecting the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean via the Hudson River. It dramatically reduced transport costs, stimulated economic growth in New York City, and facilitated westward expansion and trade between the East and the Midwest.
Lancaster Turnpike: One of the first successful long-distance paved roads in the United States, completed in 1795, connecting Philadelphia and Lancaster, Pennsylvania. It set a precedent for future toll roads.
D) Increasing Southern cotton production and the related growth of Northern manufacturing, banking and shipping industries promoted the development of national and international ties.
Cotton gin: An invention by Eli Whitney in 1793 that quickly and easily separates cotton fibers from their seeds. This invention rapidly increased the profitability of cotton, which in turn significantly expanded cotton production and the demand for enslaved labor in the South.
Thematic Focus: Economy (ECON)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
4.6 Market Revolution: Society and Culture
Explain how and why innovation in technology, agriculture, and commerce affected various segments of American society over time.
A) Large numbers of international migrants moved to industrializing northern cities, while many Americans moved west of the Appalachians, developing thriving new communities along the Ohio and Mississippi rivers.
B) The growth of manufacturing drove a significant increase in prosperity and standards of living for some; this led to the emergence of a larger middle class and a small but wealthy business elite, but also to a large and growing population of laboring poor.
C) Increasing numbers of Americans, especially women and men working in factories, no longer relied on semi-subsistence agriculture; instead, they supported themselves producing goods for distant markets.
D) Gender and family roles changed in response to the growth of definitions of domestic ideals that emphasized the separation of public and private spheres.
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
4.7 Expanding Democracy
Explain the causes and effects of the expansion of participatory democracy from 1800 to 1848.
A) The nation’s transition to a more participatory democracy was achieved by expanding suffrage from a system based on property ownership to one based on voting by all adult white men, and it was accompanied by the growth of political parties.
Two-Party System: The development of two dominant political parties (e.g., Democrats and Whigs during this period) that compete for power. This system emerged as American democracy expanded, engaging a wider electorate and structuring political debates.
Thematic Focus: Politics and Power (PCE)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
4.8 Jackson and Federal Power
Explain the causes and effects of continuing policy debates about the role of the federal government from 1800 to 1848.
A) By the 1820s and 1830s, new political parties arose—the Democrats led by Andrew Jackson, and the Whigs, led by Henry Clay—that disagreed about the role and powers of the federal government and issues such as the national bank, tariffs, and federally funded internal improvements.
B) Frontier settlers tended to champion expansion efforts, while American Indian resistance led to a sequence of wars and federal efforts to control and relocate American Indian populations.
Indian Removal Act (1830): Legislation signed into law by President Andrew Jackson that authorized the forced displacement of Native American tribes from their ancestral lands in the southeastern United States to Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma).
Cherokee Nation v Georgia (1831): A Supreme Court case where the Cherokee Nation sought to prevent Georgia from enacting laws that infringed upon Cherokee sovereignty. Chief Justice John Marshall ruled that the Cherokee Nation was a "domestic dependent nation" not a foreign state, diminishing their legal standing in U.S. courts but acknowledging some inherent rights.
Trail of Tears: The forced removal of several Native American nations (Cherokee, Muscogee, Seminole, Chickasaw, Choctaw) from their ancestral lands in the southeastern United States to Indian Territory in the 1830s, primarily under the Indian Removal Act. The forced marches resulted in the deaths of thousands of Native Americans from disease, starvation, and exposure.
Thematic Focus: Politics and Power (PCE)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
4.9 The Development of American Culture
Explain how and why a new national culture developed from 1800 to 1848.
A) A new national culture emerged that combined American elements, European influences, and regional cultural sensibilities.
B) Liberal social ideas from abroad and Romantic beliefs in human perfectibility influenced literature, art, philosophy, and architecture.
Romanticism: An artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that originated in Europe in the late 18th century and reached its peak in America in the early to mid-19th century. It emphasized emotion, individualism, glorification of all the past and nature, and the exotic.
Romanticism: This cultural movement emphasized emotion, intuition, and individualism, diverging from the Enlightenment’s focus on reason. In America, it inspired transcendentalists and authors like Emerson and Thoreau.
Utopian Societies: Experimental communities established with the aim of creating a perfect society, often based on communal living, religious principles, or social reform. Examples like the Shakers and Oneidas sought to offer alternatives to mainstream American society.
Thematic Focus: American and Regional Culture (ARC)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
4.10 The Second Great Awakening
Explain the causes of the Second Great Awakening.
A) The rise of democratic and individualistic beliefs, a response to rationalism, and changes to society caused by the market revolution, along with greater social and geographical mobility, contributed to a Second Great Awakening among Protestants.
Second Great Awakening: A Protestant religious revival movement that spread throughout the United States in the early 19th century. Characterized by emotional camp meetings and widespread conversions, it fostered new denominations, inspired social reforms, and emphasized personal salvation and moral responsibility.
New Denominations: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints led by Joseph Smith: A religious movement, also known as Mormonism, founded by Joseph Smith in the 1830s. It emphasized new revelations and communitarian principles, representing a significant outcome of the Second Great Awakening's religious fervor.
Thematic Focus: American and Regional Culture (ARC)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
4.11 An Age of Reform
Explain how and why various reform movements developed and expanded from 1800 to 1848.
A) The rise of democratic and individualistic beliefs, a response to rationalism, and changes to society caused by the market revolution, along with greater social and geographic mobility, contributed to moral and social reforms and inspired utopian & other regional movements.
B) Americans formed new voluntary organizations that aimed to change individual behaviors and improve society through temperance and other reform efforts.
Temperance: A social movement advocating for the moderation or total abstinence from alcohol consumption. The temperance movement gained significant momentum during the Second Great Awakening and often aligned with women's rights and other moral reforms of the era.
Temperance: A social movement highly popular in the 19th century that advocated for the reduction or complete prohibition of alcohol consumption, believing it led to social ills. Organizations like the American Temperance Society were instrumental.
Movement for Public Asylums: A reform effort championed by figures like Dorothea Dix, advocating for more humane treatment and institutional care for the mentally ill, as well as reforms in prisons.
Public Education: A movement led by Horace Mann advocating for universally accessible, publicly funded education. It aimed to create informed citizens, assimilate immigrants, and reduce social inequality.
C) Abolitionist & antislavery movements gradually achieved emancipation in the North, contributing to the growth of the free African American population, even as many state governments restricted African Americans’ rights.
Abolitionist: A person who advocated for the complete and immediate end to slavery. The abolitionist movement gained strength in the antebellum period, with diverse tactics ranging from moral persuasion to political action and aiding runaway slaves.
William Lloyd Garrison: A prominent American abolitionist, journalist, and social reformer who published the influential anti-slavery newspaper The Liberator and advocated for immediate emancipation without compensation.
Frederick Douglass: A former slave who became a leading abolitionist, orator, and writer. His autobiographies and powerful speeches exposed the horrors of slavery and advocated for freedom and equality.
Harriet Tubman: An escaped enslaved woman who became a famous "conductor" on the Underground Railroad, leading hundreds of enslaved people to freedom in the North.
Sojourner Truth: An abolitionist and women's rights activist who was born into slavery. She delivered her famous "Ain't I a Woman?" speech, advocating for the rights of both African Americans and women.
D) A women’s rights movement sought to create greater equality and opportunities for women, expressing its ideas at the Seneca Falls Convention.
Women’s rights movement: A social movement in the 19th century that advocated for greater political, economic, and social equality for women, including suffrage, property rights, and educational opportunities.
Seneca Falls Convention: The first women's rights convention in the United States, held in Seneca Falls, New York, in 1848. It produced the "Declaration of Sentiments," modeled after the Declaration of Independence, demanding equal rights for women, including the right to vote.
Sarah and Angelina Grimke: Sisters from a slaveholding family in South Carolina who became prominent abolitionists and early advocates for women's rights, linking the two causes.
Lucretia Mott: A Quaker abolitionist and women's rights activist who helped organize the Seneca Falls Convention.
Elizabeth Cady Stanton: A leading figure in the early women's rights movement, organizer of the Seneca Falls Convention, and primary author of the "Declaration of Sentiments," advocating for women's suffrage and other rights.
Thematic Focus: Social Structures (SOC)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
4.12 African Americans in the Early Republic
Explain the continuities and changes in the experience of African Americans from 1800 to 1848.
A) Antislavery efforts in the South were largely limited to unsuccessful slave revolts.
Nat Turner: An enslaved African American who led a slave rebellion in Southampton County, Virginia, in 1831, killing approximately 60 white men, women, and children. The rebellion terrified the South, leading to stricter slave codes and increased fear of slave insurrections.
B) Enslaved blacks and free African Americans created communities and strategies to protect their dignity and family structures, and they joined political efforts aimed at changing their status.
Denmark Vesey: A free black man in Charleston, South Carolina, who allegedly planned one of the largest slave rebellions in U.S. history in 1822. The plot was exposed, and Vesey and many co-conspirators were executed.
Thematic Focus: Social Structures (SOC)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
4.13 The Environment in the Early Republic
Explain how geographic issues and environmental factors shaped development of the South from 1800 to 1848.
A) In the South, although the majority of Southerners owned no slaves, most leaders argued that slavery was part of the Southern way of life.
B) Southern business leaders continued to rely on the production and export of traditional agricultural staples, contributing to the growth of a distinctive Southern regional identity.
C) As over-cultivation depleted arable land in the Southeast, slaveholders began relocating their plantations to more fertile lands west of the Appalachians, where the institution of slavery continued to grow.
Period 5: 1848-1877
AP Exam Weighting: 10-17%
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
5.1 Contextualizing Period 5
Explain the context in which sectional conflict emerged from 1844 to 1877.
A) The United States became more connected with the world, pursued an expansionist foreign policy in the Western Hemisphere, and emerged as the destination for many migrants from other countries.
B) Intensified by expansion and deepening regional divisions, debates over slavery and other economic, cultural, and political issues led the nation into civil war.
Election of 1860 and secession of Southern states: The election of Abraham Lincoln, a Republican committed to preventing the expansion of slavery, without any Southern electoral votes, triggered the secession of several Southern states (starting with South Carolina) from the Union, directly leading to the Civil War.
C) The Union victory in the Civil War and the contested reconstruction of the South settled the issues of slavery and secession, but left unresolved many questions about the power of the federal government and citizenship rights.
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
5.2 Manifest Destiny
Explain the causes and effects of westward expansion from 1844 to 1877.
A) The desire for access to natural and mineral resources and the hope of many settlers for economic opportunities or religious refuge led to increased migration to and settlement in the west.
California Gold Rush: A period of feverish migration of fortune-seekers to California in 1848-1849 following the discovery of gold. It led to a rapid population boom, economic diversification, and California's quick admission as a state, intensifying debates over slavery's expansion.
B) Advocates of annexing western lands argued that Manifest Destiny and the superiority of American institutions compelled the United States to expand its borders westward to the Pacific Ocean.
Manifest Destiny: A widely held belief in the 19th century United States that American settlers were destined to expand across North America. It involved a sense of divine right and a mission to spread democracy and capitalism, often justifying westward expansion, land acquisition, and the displacement of Native Americans.
Oregon Territory, Texas: Key territories acquired by the U.S. in the 1840s, embodying Manifest Destiny. The Oregon Territory was gained through diplomatic settlement with Britain (1846), and Texas was annexed in 1845 after a period as an independent republic, intensifying the conflict over slavery with Mexico.
C) Westward migration was boosted during and after the Civil War by the passage of new legislation promoting western transportation and economic development.
D) U.S. interest in expanding trade led to economic diplomatic and cultural initiatives to create more ties with Asia.
Commodore Perry and the Kanagawa Treaty: Commodore Matthew Perry's expedition to Japan in 1853-1854, which resulted in the Treaty of Kanagawa. This treaty opened Japan to limited trade with the United States, ending Japan's period of isolation and marking its entry into modern international relations.
Thematic Focus: America in the World (WOR)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
5.3 The Mexican-American War
Explain the causes and effects of the Mexican-American War.
A) The U.S. added large territories through victory in the Mexican-American War and diplomatic negotiations, raising questions about the status of slavery, American Indians, and Mexicans in newly acquired lands.
Mexican-American War (1846-1848): A conflict between the United States and Mexico, primarily over the annexation of Texas and the U.S. desire for California and other Mexican territories. The U.S. victory resulted in a massive expansion of American territory and intensified the debate over the expansion of slavery.
Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo: The treaty signed in 1848 that ended the Mexican-American War. Mexico ceded vast territories (including present-day California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, and parts of New Mexico, Colorado, and Wyoming) to the U.S. for 15 million, and recognized the Rio Grande as the border with Texas.
Gadsden Purchase: A 1853 agreement in which the United States paid Mexico 10 million for a strip of land in present-day Arizona and New Mexico. This land was acquired to facilitate the construction of a transcontinental railroad route.
B) U.S. government interaction and conflict with Mexican-Americans and Native Americans increased in regions newly taken from Native Americans and Mexico, altering these groups’ economic self-sufficiency and cultures.
Thematic Focus: America in the World (WOR)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
5.4 The Compromise of 1850
Explain similarities & differences in how regional attitudes affected federal policy in the period after the Mexican-American War.
A) The Mexican Cession led to heated controversies over whether to allow slavery in the newly acquired territories.
Mexican Cession: The region of the present-day southwestern United States that Mexico ceded to the U.S. in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848. Its acquisition led to intense debates over whether slavery should be allowed to expand into these new territories.
Wilmot Proviso: A proposed amendment in 1846 to a military appropriations bill that would have banned slavery in any territories acquired from Mexico. Though it never passed, it fueled intense sectional debate over slavery's expansion and highlighted growing divisions.
B) The courts & national leaders made a variety of attempts to resolve the issue of slavery in the territories, including the Compromise of 1850.
Compromise of 1850: A package of five separate bills passed by Congress, designed to settle disputes over slavery in new territories. Key provisions included admitting California as a free state, enacting a stricter Fugitive Slave Law, and allowing popular sovereignty to decide slavery in the Utah and New Mexico territories. It temporarily averted secession but intensified sectional tensions.
Ostend Manifesto: A secret document written in 1854 by U.S. diplomats suggesting that the U.S. should seize Cuba from Spain if Spain refused to sell it. The document was leaked and caused outrage, particularly from anti-slavery Northerners who viewed it as a Southern plot to expand slavery.
Thematic Focus: Politics and Power (PCE)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
5.5 Sectional Conflict: Regional Differences
Explain the effects of immigration from various parts of the world on American culture from 1844 to 1877.
A) Substantial numbers of international migrants continued to arrive in the United States from Europe and Asia, mainly from Ireland and Germany, often settling in ethnic communities where they could preserve elements of their languages and customs.
B) A strongly anti-Catholic nativist movement arose aimed at limiting new immigrants’ political power and cultural influence.
Nativist movement: A political movement especially prominent in the mid-19th century, advocating for the interests of native-born inhabitants over those of immigrants. Nativists feared that immigrants, particularly Irish Catholics, would undermine American culture and political institutions, leading to demands for immigration restrictions.
Thematic Focus: Social Structures (SOC)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
5.6 Failure of Compromise
Explain the political causes of the Civil War.
A) The courts & national leaders made a variety of attempts to resolve the issue of slavery in the territories, including the Kansas-Nebraska Act & the Dred Scott decision, but these ultimately failed to reduce conflict.
Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854): A controversial law that repealed the Missouri Compromise, allowing settlers in the Kansas and Nebraska territories to decide whether to allow slavery within their borders through popular sovereignty. It led to violent conflict in Kansas and further fragmented political parties.
Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857): A landmark Supreme Court case that ruled African Americans, whether enslaved or free, could not be American citizens and therefore had no standing to sue in federal court. It also declared the Missouri Compromise unconstitutional, stating that Congress could not prohibit slavery in territories, fanning the flames of sectionalism and effectively nullifying efforts to limit slavery's expansion.
Bleeding Kansas: A series of violent civil confrontations in the Kansas Territory from 1854 to 1859, stemming from the Kansas-Nebraska Act's allowance of popular sovereignty to determine slavery. Pro-slavery and anti-slavery factions engaged in bloody clashes, serving as a prelude to the Civil War.
The Sumner-Brooks incident: In 1856, after Senator Charles Sumner delivered an abolitionist speech criticizing pro-slavery forces in Kansas and insulting South Carolina Senator Andrew Butler, Butler's nephew, Representative Preston Brooks, attacked Sumner with a cane on the Senate floor. The incident symbolized the escalating violence and lack of civility in political discourse over slavery.
B) The Second Party System ended when the issues of slavery and anti-immigration nativism weakened loyalties to the two major parties and fostered the emergence of sectional parties, most notably the Republican Party in the North.
Second Party System: Refers to the dominance of two major national political parties, Democrats and Whigs, from the 1820s to the 1850s, characterized by strong party loyalty and grassroots organization. The issue of slavery ultimately fractured this system.
Republican Party: A political party formed in the 1850s as an anti-slavery party. Its core principle was stopping the expansion of slavery into new territories, leading to its emergence as a dominant force in Northern politics and contributing to the sectional divide.
Know-Nothing Party: A prominent nativist political party in the mid-1850s that opposed immigration and Catholic influence. Officially known as the American Party, it gained significant support from those wary of the influx of Irish and German immigrants.
Thematic Focus: Politics and Power (PCE)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
5.7 Election of 1860 and Secession
Describe the effects of Lincoln’s election.
A) Abraham Lincoln’s victory on the Republicans’ free-soil platform in the presidential election of 1860 was accomplished without any Southern electoral votes. After a series of contested debates about secession, most slave states voted to secede from the Union, precipitating the Civil War.
Lincoln-Douglas Debates: A series of seven debates between Abraham Lincoln and Stephen Douglas during the 1858 Illinois senatorial campaign. While Lincoln lost the Senate race, the debates elevated his national profile and illuminated the growing ideological divide over slavery and its expansion.
Thematic Focus: Politics and Power (PCE)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
5.8 Military Conflict in the Civil War
Explain the various factors that contributed to the Union victory in the Civil War.
A) Both the Union and the Confederacy mobilized their economies and societies to wage the war even while facing considerable home front opposition.
B) Although the Confederacy showed initiative and daring early in the war, the Union ultimately succeeded due to improvements in leadership and strategy, key victories, greater resources, and the wartime destruction of the South’s infrastructure.
Strategies: The Anaconda Plan: A Union strategy devised by General Winfield Scott early in the Civil War. It involved blockading Southern ports, controlling the Mississippi River (to split the Confederacy), and capturing the Confederate capital, aiming to strangle the Southern economy and wear down its resistance.
Turning Points: Vicksburg, Gettysburg, Sherman’s March, Appomattox: Key moments in the Civil War: The Siege of Vicksburg (1863) gave the Union control of the Mississippi River. The Battle of Gettysburg (1863) was a major Union victory, marking the turning point in the East. Sherman's March to the Sea (1864) devastated the Southern infrastructure and civilian morale. The surrender at Appomattox Court House (1865) marked the end of the Civil War with Lee's surrender to Grant.
Thematic Focus: Politics and Power (PCE)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
5.9 Government Policies During the Civil War
Explain how Lincoln’s leadership during the Civil War impacted American ideals over the course of the war.
A) Lincoln and most Union supporters began the Civil War to preserve the Union, but Lincoln’s decision to issue the Emancipation Proclamation reframed the purpose of the war and helped prevent the Confederacy from gaining full diplomatic support from European powers. Many African Americans fled Southern plantations and enlisted in the Union Army, helping to undermine the Confederacy.
Emancipation Proclamation (1863): An executive order issued by President Abraham Lincoln during the Civil War that declared all enslaved people in Confederate-held territory to be free. While it did not immediately free all slaves, it redefined the war's purpose to include the abolition of slavery and encouraged enslaved people to seek freedom and join the Union cause.
B) Lincoln sought to reunify the country and used speeches such as the Gettysburg Address to portray the struggle against slavery as the fulfillment of America’s founding democratic ideals.
Gettysburg Address (1863): A brief, powerful speech delivered by President Abraham Lincoln during the dedication of the Soldiers' National Cemetery at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. In it, he eloquently reaffirmed the principles of human equality from the Declaration of Independence and reframed the Civil War as a struggle for freedom and national unity.
Thematic Focus: America in the World (WOR)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
5.10 Failure of Reconstruction
Explain how and why Reconstruction resulted in continuity and change in regional and national understandings of what it meant to be American.
A) Southern plantation owners continued to own the majority of the region's land even after Reconstruction. Former slaves sought land ownership but generally fell short of self-sufficiency, as an exploitative and soil-intensive sharecropping system limited blacks’ and poor whites’ access to land in the South.
Sharecropping system: A system of agriculture where a landowner allows a tenant to use the land in return for a share of the crops produced on their portion of land. It became widespread in the South after the Civil War, trapping many African Americans and poor whites in a cycle of debt and poverty, resembling a new form of servitude.
The Amnesty Act of 1872: A federal law that removed voting and office-holding disqualifications for most of the former Confederates, allowing them to re-enter political life and further undermining Reconstruction efforts.
B) Segregation, violence, Supreme Court decisions, and local political tactics progressively stripped away African American rights, but the 14th and 15th amendments became the basis for court decisions upholding civil rights in the 20th century.
Segregation: The enforced separation of different racial groups in a country, community, or establishment. In the post-Reconstruction South, it was institutionalized through Jim Crow laws, enforced by violence, and upheld by Supreme Court decisions like Plessy v. Ferguson.
14th Amendment (1868): Constitutional amendment that granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the United States and guaranteed them equal protection of the laws and due process. It was central to ensuring civil rights for former slaves and has been a cornerstone of civil rights law.
15th Amendment (1870): Constitutional amendment that prohibited states from denying a citizen the right to vote based on "race, color, or previous condition of servitude." It aimed to secure voting rights for African American men but faced various circumventions in the South.
Ku Klux Klan: A white supremacist terrorist organization that emerged during Reconstruction, using violence and intimidation to suppress African American political power and enforce racial hierarchy in the South.
Black Codes: Laws passed by Southern states immediately after the Civil War that severely restricted the freedom and economic opportunities of African Americans, closely resembling slavery. They aimed to control labor and maintain racial subjugation.
Thematic Focus: Social Structures (SOC)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
5.11 Reconstruction
Explain the effects of government policy during Reconstruction on society from 1865 to 1877.
A) Reconstruction altered relationships between the states and the federal government and led to debates over new definitions of citizenship, particularly regarding the rights of African Americans, women, and other minorities.
Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction (1863), Wade-Davis Bill (1864), Freedmen's Bureau (1865): Early Reconstruction policies. Lincoln's Proclamation offered leniency to Confederates. The Wade-Davis Bill, a tougher plan by Radical Republicans, was pocket vetoed. The Freedmen's Bureau provided aid and assistance to newly freed slaves and some poor whites, including education, food, and medical care.
B) The 13th Amendment abolished slavery, while the 14th and 15th Amendments granted African Americans citizenship, equal protection under the law, and voting rights.
13th Amendment (1865): Constitutional amendment that formally abolished slavery and involuntary servitude in the United States, except as punishment for a crime. It was a monumental achievement of the Civil War and Reconstruction era.
C) The women’s rights movement was both emboldened and divided over the 14th and 15th Amendments to the Constitution.
D) Efforts by radical and moderate Republicans to change the balance of power between Congress and the presidency and to reorder race relations in the defeated South yielded some short-term successes. Reconstruction opened up political opportunities and other leadership roles to former slaves, but it ultimately failed, due both to determined Southern resistance and the North’s waning resolve.
Civil Rights Act of 1866, Reconstruction Acts of 1867, Civil Rights Act of 1875: Key federal legislation during Reconstruction. The Civil Rights Act of 1866 granted citizenship and equal rights. The Reconstruction Acts divided the South into military districts and laid out requirements for readmission. The Civil Rights Act of 1875 prohibited racial discrimination in public places, though it was later overturned by the Supreme Court.
Thematic Focus: Politics and Power (PCE)
Period 6: 1869-1898
AP Exam Weighting: 10-17%
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
6.1 Contextualizing Period 6
Explain the historical context for the rise of industrial capitalism in the United States.
A) Technological advances, large-scale production methods, and the opening of new markets encouraged the rise of industrial capitalism in the United States.
B) The migrations that accompanied industrialization transformed both urban and rural areas of the United States and caused dramatic social and cultural change.
C) The Gilded Age produced new cultural and intellectual movements, public reform efforts, and political debates over economic and social policies.
Gilded Age (1870s-1900): A term coined by Mark Twain to describe an era of rapid economic growth, particularly in the North and West, and a period of increasing industrialization, urbanization, and immigration. Beneath the glittering surface of prosperity, it was characterized by societal problems like poverty, income inequality, political corruption, and labor unrest.
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
6.2 Westward Expansion: Economic Development
Explain the causes and effects of settlement of the West from 1877 to 1898.
A) Improvements in mechanization helped agricultural production increase substantially and contributed to declines in food prices.
B) Many farmers responded to the increasing consolidation in agricultural markets and their dependencies on the railroad system by creating local and regional coop organizations.
National Grange Movement: A social and educational organization founded in 1867, primarily by farmers, to combat the isolation of rural life. It quickly grew into a political movement advocating for farmers' rights, especially against railroad abuses and high prices.
Ocala Platform: A set of demands adopted by the National Farmers' Alliance in Ocala, Florida, in 1890. It included calls for government regulation of railroads, a graduated income tax, lower tariffs, and the establishment of a subtreasury system (federal loans for farmers), forming a basis for the Populist Party agenda.
Munn v Illinois (1877): A Supreme Court case that upheld the power of state governments to regulate private industries, particularly railroads, that affect the public interest. It was a victory for farmers and the Grange Movement in their fight against railroad monopolies.
C) Following the Civil War, government subsidies for transportation and communication systems helped open new markets in North America.
Settlement of the Great Plains: The rapid influx of settlers into the vast, formerly sparsely populated grasslands of the central U.S. after the Civil War. It was facilitated by breakthroughs in farming technology, transcontinental railroads, and government policies like the Homestead Act, leading to significant environmental and social changes.
D) The building of transcontinental railroads, the discovery of mineral resources, and government policies promoted economic growth and created new communities and centers of commercial activity.
Transcontinental railroads: Railroad lines connecting the eastern and western halves of the United States. The first was completed in 1869. These railroads significantly facilitated westward expansion, trade, economic growth, and the decline of Native American autonomy.
Thematic Focus: Economy (ECON)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
6.3 Westward Expansion: Social and Cultural Development
Explain the causes and effects of settlement of the West from 1877 to 1898.
A) In hopes of achieving ideas of self-sufficiency and independence, migrants moved to both rural and boomtown areas of the West for opportunities, such as building the railroads, mining, farming, and ranching.
B) As migrant populations increased in number and the American bison population was decimated, competition for land and resources in the West among white settlers, American Indians, and Mexican Americans led to an increase in violent conflict.
C) The US government violated treaties with Native Americans and responded to resistance with military force, eventually confining them to reservations & denying tribal sovereignty.
Native American resistance: Little Big Horn, Ghost Dance Movement, Battle of Wounded Knee: Significant instances of Native American resistance against U.S. expansion. Little Big Horn (1876): Lakota and Cheyenne warriors defeated Custer's forces. Ghost Dance Movement: A spiritual movement among Western Native Americans promising the return of the buffalo and traditional lifeways, violently suppressed. Battle of Wounded Knee (1890): Massacre of Lakota Sioux by U.S. troops, marking the end of the major Indian Wars.
Dawes Severalty Act (1887): A federal law that aimed to assimilate Native Americans by breaking up tribal lands into individual plots and distributing them to Native American families. It undermined communal tribal life, significantly reduced Native American landholdings, and often led to further loss of land.
D) Many American Indians preserved their cultures and tribal identities despite government policies promoting assimilation, and they attempted to develop self-sustaining economic practices.
Thematic Focus: America and National Identity (NAT)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
6.4 The “New South”
Explain how various factors contributed to continuity and change in the “New South” from 1877 to 1898.
A) Despite industrialization in some segments of the Southern economy—a change promoted by Southern leaders who called for a “New South”—agriculture based on sharecropping and tenant farming continued to be the primary economic activity in the South.
"New South": A term coined by Henry Grady in the late 19th century to describe the economic and ideological transformation of the South after the Civil War. Advocates promoted industrial development, diversification of agriculture, and reconciliation with the North, but racial discrimination and agrarian poverty largely persisted.
Steel, lumber, tobacco: Key industries that emerged in the "New South," representing a shift toward industrialization in some areas, though agriculture, particularly sharecropping, remained dominant for most of the population.
George Washington Carver and the Tuskegee Institute: George Washington Carver, an agricultural scientist, promoted crop diversification (e.g., peanuts, sweet potatoes) at the Tuskegee Institute, a historically black college founded by Booker T. Washington. This aimed to improve the economic self-sufficiency of African Americans in the agricultural South.
B) The Supreme Court decision Plessy v Ferguson that upheld racial segregation helped to mark the end of most of the gains African Americans made during Reconstruction. Facing increased violence, discrimination, and scientific theories of race, African American reformers continued to fight for political and social equality.
Plessy v. Ferguson (1896): A landmark Supreme Court decision that upheld the constitutionality of racial segregation under the doctrine of "separate but equal." This ruling provided legal sanction for Jim Crow laws and enshrined racial discrimination for decades, effectively dismantling the promise of the 14th Amendment.
Civil Rights Cases of 1883, Jim Crow laws: The Civil Rights Cases of 1883 declared the Civil Rights Act of 1875 unconstitutional, weakening federal protection against discrimination. Jim Crow laws were state and local statutes enacted in the post-Reconstruction South to enforce racial segregation and disenfranchise African Americans.
Loss of rights: literacy tests, poll taxes, grandfather clauses: Tactics employed in the South to circumvent the 15th Amendment and effectively disenfranchise African American voters. Literacy tests required passing reading/writing exams; poll taxes required payment to vote; grandfather clauses exempted those whose ancestors could vote before 1866 (effectively exempting most whites).
Responses to discrimination: Ida B. Wells, Booker T. Washington, W.E.B. Du Bois: Influential African American leaders who responded to racial discrimination. Ida B. Wells led an anti-lynching crusade. Booker T. Washington advocated for vocational education and economic self-sufficiency (accommodationism). W.E.B. Du Bois advocated for immediate civil rights and higher education for the "talented tenth" (confrontation).
Thematic Focus: Social Structures (SOC)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
6.5 Technological Innovation
Explain the effects of technological advances in the development of the United States over time.
A) Businesses made use of technological innovations and greater access to natural resources to dramatically increase the number of goods.
Alexander Graham Bell (telephone), George Eastman (Kodak camera), Henry Bessemer (steel), Thomas Edison (electric power, lightbulb), George Westinghouse (AC current): Key innovators and their inventions that transformed American society and industry: Bell's telephone revolutionized communication; Eastman's Kodak camera democratized photography; Bessemer's process made steel production efficient; Edison's electric power and lightbulb fundamentally changed daily life and industry; Westinghouse's AC current enabled widespread power distribution.
Other innovations: subways, suspension bridges (Brooklyn Bridge), skyscrapers, department stores, canned food: Infrastructural and consumer innovations that fostered urbanization and changed daily life. Subways and suspension bridges (like the Brooklyn Bridge, a marvel of engineering) revolutionized urban transport. Skyscrapers allowed for vertical growth in cities. Department stores and canned food transformed consumer habits and retail.
Thematic Focus: Innovation (INV)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
6.6 The Rise of Industrial Capitalism
Explain the socioeconomic continuities and changes associated with the growth of industrial capitalism from 1865 to 1898.
A) Large-scale industrial production—accompanied by massive technological change, expanding international communication networks, pro-growth government policies—generated rapid economic development and business consolidation.
Captains of Industry: Vanderbilt, Gould, J.P. Morgan: Powerful business leaders who amassed vast fortunes during the Gilded Age through their control of industries like railroads (Vanderbilt, Gould) and finance (J.P. Morgan). Their methods were seen by some as ruthless "robber barons" but by others as innovative "captains of industry."
Laissez-faire economics (Adam Smith): An economic doctrine advocating for minimal government intervention in the economy. Inspired by Adam Smith's theories, it gained traction during the Gilded Age, allowing businesses to operate with little regulation, leading to monopolies and vast wealth for some.
B) Businesses made use of redesigned financial and management structures, advances in marketing, and a growing labor force to dramatically increase the production of goods.
C) Many business leaders sought increased profits by consolidating corporations into large trusts and holding companies, which further concentrated wealth.
Andrew Carnegie: U.S. Steel, John D. Rockefeller: Standard Oil monopolies: Iconic industrialists who built powerful monopolies. Carnegie dominated the steel industry through vertical integration, while Rockefeller controlled the oil industry through vertical and horizontal integration (Standard Oil), becoming symbols of immense corporate power and wealth concentration.
D) Businesses increasingly looked outside of US borders in an effort to gain greater influence and control over markets and natural resources in the Pacific Rim, Asia and Latin America.
Social Darwinism: A social theory prominent in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, applying Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection to human society. It argued that individuals and businesses compete for survival, and the "fittest" (wealthiest) naturally rise to the top, justifying economic inequality and limited government intervention.
Thematic Focus: Economy (ECON)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
6.7 Labor in the Gilded Age
Explain the socioeconomic continuities and changes associated with the growth of industrial capitalism from 1865 to 1898.
A) As the price of many goods decreased, workers’ real wages increased, providing access to a variety of goods and services; many Americans’ standards of living improved, while the gap between rich & poor grew.
B) Labor and management battled over wages and working conditions, with workers organizing local and national unions and/or directly confronting business leaders.
Knights of Labor, American Federation of Labor: Major labor organizations of the Gilded Age. The Knights of Labor (founded 1869) was an inclusive union advocating for all workers regardless of skill, race, or gender, aiming for a cooperative commonwealth. The American Federation of Labor (AFL, founded 1886), led by Samuel Gompers, focused on skilled workers and practical goals like higher wages and shorter hours through collective bargaining.
Haymarket Bombing, Homestead & Pullman Strikes: Significant labor conflicts that highlighted tensions between workers and management. The Haymarket Bombing (1886) in Chicago led to a backlash against labor unions. The Homestead Strike (1892) at Carnegie's steel plant involved a violent confrontation between striking workers and Pinkerton detectives. The Pullman Strike (1894), a massive railroad strike, was broken by federal troops, underscoring government's pro-business stance.
C) The industrial workforce expanded & child labor increased.
Thematic Focus: Social Structures (SOC)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
6.8 Immigration and Migration in the Gilded Age
Explain how cultural and economic factors affected immigration patterns over time.
A) The industrial workforce expanded and became more diverse through internal and international migration.
B) As cities became areas of economic growth featuring new factories and businesses, they affected immigrants from Asia, Southeast and Eastern Europe, as well as African American migrants within and out of the South. Many migrants moved to escape poverty, religious persecution, and limited opportunities for social mobility in their home countries or regions.
Chinese Exclusion Act (1882): The first significant law restricting immigration into the United States, specifically banning Chinese laborers from immigrating. Passed due to nativist sentiment and economic fears, it marked a turning point in U.S. immigration policy.
C) Urban neighborhoods based on particular ethnicities, races, and classes provided new cultural opportunities for city dwellers.
Tenements: Multi-family urban dwellings, often overcrowded and lacking in sanitation and safety, that housed many working-class families and new immigrants in rapidly growing cities during the Gilded Age. They symbolized the harsh living conditions faced by the urban poor.
Thematic Focus: Migration and Settlement (MIG)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
6.9 Responses to Immigration in the Gilded Age
Explain the various responses to immigration in the period over time.
A) Increasing public debates over assimilation and Americanization accompany the growth of international migration. Many immigrants negotiated compromises between the cultures they brought and the culture they found in the United States.
American Protective Association (APA): A nativist organization founded in 1887 that campaigned against Catholic immigration and influence in the United States, reflecting widespread anti-immigrant and anti-Catholic sentiment.
B) Social commentators advocated theories of Social Darwinism to justify the success of those at the top of the socioeconomic structure as both appropriate & inevitable.
C) Many women, like Jane Addams, worked in settlement houses to help immigrants adapt to U.S. language and customs.
Jane Addams: A pioneering social worker, sociologist, and leader in the settlement house movement. She co-founded Hull House in Chicago in 1889, providing social services, education, and advocacy for immigrants and the poor.
Settlement houses: Community centers established in urban immigrant neighborhoods during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. They provided social services, education, and cultural activities to help immigrants and the poor adapt to American life and improve their living conditions. Hull House, founded by Jane Addams, is a famous example.
Thematic Focus: Social Structures (SOC)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
6.10 Development of the Middle Class
Explain the causes of increased economic opportunity and its effects on society.
A) Corporations’ need for managers and for male and female clerical workers, as well as increased access to educational institutions, fostered the growth of a distinctive middle class. A growing amount of leisure time also helped expand consumer culture.
Newspaper moguls: Joseph Pulitzer, William Randolph Hearst: Leading figures in the newspaper industry who pioneered "yellow journalism"—sensationalized news reporting to attract readers. They built vast media empires that shaped public opinion and contributed to mass culture.
Entertainment: circuses (Barnum and Bailey), music (John Philip Sousa, Jelly Roll Morton, Scott Joplin), spectator sports (baseball, football), amateur sports (tennis, polo, golf): Examples of the burgeoning leisure and entertainment industries in the Gilded Age that catered to a growing middle class with more disposable income and free time. These helped create a shared national culture.
B) Some business leaders argued that the wealthy had a moral obligation to help the less fortunate and improve society, as articulated in the Gospel of Wealth, and they made philanthropic contributions that enhanced educational opportunities and urban environments.
Gospel of Wealth: An essay written by Andrew Carnegie in 1889 that articulated the idea that the wealthy have a moral obligation to use their fortunes for the betterment of society through philanthropy. It encouraged rich industrialists to engage in large-scale charitable efforts rather than simply accumulating wealth.
“City Beautiful” movement: An urban planning movement in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, initially in the United States, that advocated for the beautification and monumental grandeur of cities to promote social harmony and improve urban life. It often involved grand civic centers, parks, and wide boulevards.
Thematic Focus: Social Structures (SOC)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
6.11 Reform in the Gilded Age
Explain how different reform movements responded to the rise of industrial capitalism in the Gilded Age.
A) A number of artists & critics, including agrarians, utopians, socialists, and advocates of the Social Gospel, championed alternative visions for the economy and US society.
Social Gospel: A Protestant intellectual movement that applied Christian ethics to social problems, particularly justice for the urban poor, labor issues, and social inequality. Proponents advocated for social reforms and believed that Christians had a responsibility to improve earthly conditions.
Reformers: Henry George, Edward Bellamy, Cardinal James Gibbons, Dwight Moody, Walter Rauschenbusch, Jane Addams: Prominent reformers of the Gilded Age advocating for various social and economic changes, ranging from land taxation (George) to utopian socialism (Bellamy) and social reform through religious principles (Social Gospel figures) or direct intervention (Addams' settlement houses).
Organizations: The Salvation Army: A Christian charitable organization, originating in England and expanding to the U.S. in the Gilded Age, that provided social services, food, shelter, and religious instruction to the urban poor and addicted.
Literature and the Arts: Realism (Mark Twain), Impressionism (Mary Cassatt), Romanesque architecture: Artistic and literary movements reflecting the Gilded Age. Realism (Mark Twain) depicted life truthfully, often focusing on social issues. Impressionism (Mary Cassatt) focused on capturing fleeting moments and light. Romanesque architecture, with its heavy, grand style, was popular for public buildings.
B) Many women sought greater equality with men, often joining voluntary organizations, going to college, and promoting social & political reform.
Organizations: National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) / American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA) (later NAWSA), Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU), Anti-Saloon League: Key women's organizations. The NAWSA (formed from a merger) was a leading force for women's suffrage. The WCTU and Anti-Saloon League were powerful temperance organizations that provided women with a platform for public activism and often linked temperance to women's rights.
Thematic Focus: Social Structures (SOC)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
6.12 Role of Government in the Gilded Age
Explain the continuities and changes in the role of the government in the U.S. economy.
A) Some argued that laissez-faire policies and competition promoted economic growth in the long run, and they opposed government intervention during economic downturns.
Laissez-faire policies: An economic philosophy that advocates for minimal government intervention in the economy, allowing for free markets and competition to regulate themselves. It was a dominant economic principle during the Gilded Age, contrasting with later Progressive era calls for greater regulation.
Interstate Commerce Act of 1887, Antitrust Act of 1890, Pendleton Act of 1883, Bland-Allison Act: Important legislative responses to Gilded Age issues. The Interstate Commerce Act regulated railroads. The Sherman Antitrust Act aimed to curb monopolies. The Pendleton Act reformed the civil service. The Bland-Allison Act concerned silver coinage and monetary policy. Note: The Antitrust Act of 1890 is the Sherman Antitrust Act.
B) Foreign policymakers increasingly looked outside US borders in an effort to gain greater influence and control over markets and natural resources in the Pacific Rim, Asia, and Latin America.
Thematic Focus: Politics and Power (PCE)
Period 7: 1890-1945
AP Exam Weighting: 10-17%
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
7.1 Contextualizing Period 7
Explain the context in which America grew into its role as a world power.
A) Growth expanded opportunity, while economic instability led to new efforts to reform U.S. society and its economic system.
Urbanization, Progressive Era, Great Depression: Key societal and economic transformations of the period. Urbanization concentrated populations in cities. The Progressive Era saw widespread social and political reform efforts. The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression that challenged existing economic paradigms.
B) Innovations in communications and technology contributed to the growth of mass culture, while significant changes occurred in internal and international migration patterns.
C) Participation in a series of global conflicts propelled the U.S. into a position of international power over the nation’s proper world role.
World War I, World War II: Major global conflicts that significantly shaped the U.S.'s role on the world stage, transforming its economy, society, and international standing.
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
7.2 Imperialism: Debates
Explain the similarities and differences in attitudes about the nation’s proper role in the world.
A) Imperialists cited economic opportunities, racial theories, competition with European empires, and the perception in the 1890s that the western frontier was “closed” to argue that Americans were destined to expand their culture and institutions to peoples around the globe.
Imperialists: Supporters of American expansion overseas, often driven by economic motives, a belief in racial superiority, and the desire to compete with European powers. They sought to acquire colonies and establish U.S. influence globally.
Monroe Doctrine, Social Darwinism: The Monroe Doctrine, originally an assertion of U.S. dominance in the Western Hemisphere, was reinterpreted to justify interventionism. Social Darwinism was used to rationalize American expansion as a natural process of the "fittest" nations dominating others.
Alaska Purchase, Annexing Hawaii, Venezuela boundary dispute: Examples of U.S. territorial expansion and increased global involvement. The Alaska Purchase (1867) was an early acquisition. The annexation of Hawaii (1898) was driven by economic and strategic interests. The Venezuela boundary dispute (1895) saw the U.S. assert its growing influence in Latin American affairs under the reinterpretation of the Monroe Doctrine.
B) Anti-imperialists cited principles of self-determination and invoked both racial theories and the U.S. foreign policy tradition of isolationism to argue that the U.S. should not extend its territory overseas.
Anti-imperialists: Opponents of American expansionism, who argued that acquiring overseas territories violated American principles of self-government and liberty, could lead to costly wars, or result in unwanted racial mixing. Prominent figures included Mark Twain and Andrew Carnegie.
Thematic Focus: America in the World (WOR)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
7.3 The Spanish-American War and U.S. Foreign Policy to 1917
Explain the effects of the Spanish-American War.
A) The American victory in the Spanish-American War led to the U.S. acquisition of island territories in the Caribbean and the Pacific, an increase in involvement in Asia, and the suppression of a nationalist movement in the Philippines.
Spanish-American War (1898): A brief conflict between the U.S. and Spain, primarily over Cuba's independence. Driven by humanitarian concerns, economic interests, and yellow journalism, the U.S. victory marked its emergence as a world power and resulted in the acquisition of new territories.
Spanish-American War: De Lome Letter, Sinking of the Maine, Teller & Platt Amendments: The De Lome Letter (a Spanish diplomat's critical letter about McKinley) and the mysterious sinking of the USS Maine battleship fueled public support for war. The Teller Amendment (1898) pledged Cuban independence. The Platt Amendment (1901) later gave the U.S. significant control over Cuban affairs.
U.S. New Territories: Puerto Rico, Guam, the Philippines: Territories acquired by the U.S. from Spain as a result of the Spanish-American War. These acquisitions sparked significant debate about the nature of American imperialism and the rights of the inhabitants.
China: Open Door policy: A U.S. foreign policy stance proposed in 1899 that sought to ensure equal trading opportunities for all nations in China and prevent any single power from monopolizing Chinese markets or territory.
Big Stick Diplomacy: Panama Canal, Roosevelt Corollary, Treaty of Portsmouth, Root-Takahira Agreement (T. Roosevelt): Theodore Roosevelt's foreign policy approach characterized by aggressive expansion of American influence through military power and veiled threats. Examples include the construction of the Panama Canal, the Roosevelt Corollary (asserting U.S. right to intervene in Latin America), meditating the Treaty of Portsmouth (ending Russo-Japanese War), and the Root-Takahira Agreement (maintaining open trade with China).
Dollar Diplomacy: Intervention in Nicaragua (W.H. Taft): President William Howard Taft's foreign policy, which focused on promoting U.S. financial and business interests abroad through investments and economic leverage. This often led to military intervention to protect American financial interests, as seen in Nicaragua.
Moral Diplomacy: Jones Act, Tampico Incident (W. Wilson): President Woodrow Wilson's foreign policy approach, which emphasized promoting democracy, human rights, and American ideals, but often still involved intervention. The Jones Act granted greater autonomy to the Philippines and Puerto Rico. The Tampico Incident was a minor dispute with Mexico that almost led to war.
Thematic Focus: America in the World (WOR)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
7.4 The Progressives
Compare the goals and effects of the Progressive reform movement.
A) Some Progressive Era journalists attacked what they saw as political corruption, social injustice, and economic inequality, while reformers, often from the middle and upper classes and including many women, worked to effect social changes in cities & among immigrant populations.
Progressive Era (1890s-1920s): A period of widespread social activism and political reform across the United States. Main goals included addressing problems caused by industrialization, urbanization, immigration, and political corruption, through government regulation, social welfare programs, and increased democratic participation.
Muckrakers: Investigative journalists of the Progressive Era who exposed corruption, scandalous practices, and social injustices in business and politics. Examples include Ida Tarbell (Standard Oil), Jacob Riis (urban poverty), Upton Sinclair (meatpacking industry), and Lincoln Steffens (municipal corruption).
Pragmatists: Philosophical thinkers like William James and John Dewey, influential during the Progressive Era, who emphasized practical consequences and experience as the basis for knowledge and action. Their ideas supported the Progressive belief in using empirical evidence to solve social problems.
B) The Progressives were divided over many issues. Some Progressives supported Southern segregation, while others ignored its presence. Some Progressives advocated expanded popular participation in government, while others called for greater reliance on professional and technical experts to make government more efficient. Progressives also disagreed about immigration restrictions.
Political Reforms: Secret ballot, direct primaries, initiative, referendum, recall: Democratic reforms aimed at reducing political corruption and increasing citizen participation. The secret ballot (Australian ballot) ensured privacy. Direct primaries allowed voters to choose party candidates. Initiative (citizens propose laws), referendum (citizens vote on laws), and recall (citizens remove officials) empowered voters directly.
Social Reforms: Compulsory school attendance, Lochner v New York, Muller v. Oregon: Progressive efforts to improve society. Compulsory school attendance laws aimed at educating children. Lochner v. New York (1905) struck down a law limiting bakers' working hours, seen as a setback for labor reform. Muller v. Oregon (1908) upheld a law limiting women's working hours, seen as a victory for protective legislation, though later criticized for reinforcing gender stereotypes.
C) On the national level, Progressives sought federal legislation that they believed would effectively regulate the economy, expand democracy & general moral reform. Progressive amendments to the Constitution dealt with issues such as prohibition and women’s suffrage.
Theodore Roosevelt’s Square Deal: President Theodore Roosevelt’s domestic program, aimed at conservation of natural resources, control of corporations, and consumer protection. Key initiatives included trust-busting, the Elkins and Hepburn Acts (strengthening ICC regulation of railroads), reacting to Upton Sinclair's The Jungle with the Pure Food and Drug Act and Meat Inspection Act.
Taft’s Presidency: Mann-Elkins Act, 16th Amendment graduated income tax, Payne-Aldrich Tariff, 17th Amendment direct election of Senators: William Howard Taft, though less progressive than Roosevelt, signed some significant reforms. The Mann-Elkins Act strengthened ICC power. The 16th Amendment authorized federal income tax. The Payne-Aldrich Tariff was a high tariff that angered Progressives. The 17th Amendment provided for the direct election of senators.
Wilson’s Progressive Program: Underwood Tariff, Federal Reserve Act, Federal Trade Commission, Clayton Antitrust Act, Federal Farm Loan Act, Child Labor Act: Woodrow Wilson's "New Freedom" program emphasized attacking the "triple wall of privilege": tariffs, banks, and trusts. The Underwood Tariff lowered rates. The Federal Reserve Act reformed the banking system. The Federal Trade Commission and Clayton Antitrust Act strengthened anti-monopoly measures. The Federal Farm Loan Act provided credit to farmers, and the Child Labor Act restricted child labor (later ruled unconstitutional).
Social Reforms: National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA), 19th Amendment: Key social reform outcomes. The NAACP, founded in 1909, advocated for civil rights for African Americans. NAWSA campaigned for women's suffrage, leading to the 19th Amendment (1920) which granted women the right to vote.
Thematic Focus: Politics and Power (PCE)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
7.5 World War I: Military and Diplomacy
Explain the causes and consequences of U.S. involvement in World War I.
A) After initial neutrality in World War I, the nation entered the conflict, departing from the U.S. foreign policy tradition of non-involvement in European affairs, in response to Woodrow Wilson’s call for the defense of humanitarian and democratic principles.
World War I (1914-1918): A global war fought primarily in Europe. The United States initially declared neutrality but eventually entered in 1917, significantly impacting the war's outcome and becoming a major global player.
Sinking of the Lusitania, Zimmerman Telegram: Key events drawing the U.S. into WWI. The sinking of the British passenger liner Lusitania by a German U-boat in 1915, killing many Americans, fueled anti-German sentiment. The Zimmerman Telegram (1917), a secret German proposal for a Mexican alliance against the U.S., convinced many Americans to support war.
B) Although the American Expeditionary Forces played a relatively limited role in combat, the United States’ entry helped to tip the balance of the conflict in favor of the allies.
C) Despite Wilson’s deep involvement in postwar negotiations, the Senate refused to ratify the Treaty of Versailles or join the League of Nations.
Treaty of Versailles (1919): The peace treaty that officially ended World War I between the Allied powers and Germany. It imposed harsh terms on Germany and included the Covenant of the League of Nations. The U.S. Senate refused to ratify it, largely due to concerns over sovereignty and entanglement in European affairs.
League of Nations: An international organization proposed by President Woodrow Wilson in his Fourteen Points speech, designed to promote world peace and collective security through diplomacy and cooperation. Though a key component of the Treaty of Versailles, the U.S. never joined it due to Senate opposition.
Wilson’s 14 Points: President Woodrow Wilson's blueprint for world peace after World War I, delivered in a 1918 speech. It called for open diplomacy, freedom of the seas, free trade, arms reduction, self-determination for ethnic groups, and the creation of a League of Nations.
Thematic Focus: America in the World (WOR)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
7.6 World War I: Home Front
Explain the causes and effects of international and internal migration patterns over time.
A) Official restrictions on freedom of speech grew during World War I, as increased anxiety about radicalism led to a Red Scare and attacks on labor activism and immigrant culture.
Radicalism: Political ideologies or movements that advocate for fundamental and often revolutionary changes in society and government. During and after WWI, fear of socialism, communism, and anarchism led to suppression of dissent.
Red Scare (1919-1920): A period of intense anti-Communist and anti-radical hysteria in the United States, fueled by fears of Bolshevism after the Russian Revolution and domestic labor unrest. It led to government raids, arrests, and deportations of suspected radicals.
Palmer Raids, Schenck v. United States: Part of the Red Scare. The Palmer Raids were a series of mass arrests and raids on suspected radicals and immigrants by Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer. Schenck v. United States (1919) was a Supreme Court case that upheld the Espionage Act, affirming that free speech could be limited if it presented a "clear and present danger" during wartime.
B) Immigration from Europe reached its peak in the years before World War I. During World War I, nativist campaigns against some ethnic groups led to the passage of quotas that restricted immigration, particularly from southern and eastern Europe, and increased barriers to Asian immigration.
Espionage Act (1917), Sedition Act (1918): Wartime laws passed during WWI that significantly curtailed civil liberties. The Espionage Act prohibited interference with military operations or supporting U.S. enemies. The Sedition Act made it a crime to criticize the government or war effort, leading to arrests and suppression of dissent.
C) The increased demand for war production and labor during World War I led many Americans to migrate to urban centers in search of economic opportunities.
D) In the Great Migration during and after World War I, African Americans escaping segregation, racial violence, and limited economic opportunity in the South moved to the North and West, where they found new opportunities but still encountered discrimination.
Great Migration: The movement of over 6 million African Americans from the rural Southern United States to the urban Northeast, Midwest, and West between 1910 and 1970. Driven by a desire to escape Jim Crow laws, racial violence, and economic oppression in the South, and to seek industrial jobs and better opportunities in Northern and Western cities.
Thematic Focus: Social Structures (SOC)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
7.7 Innovations in Communication and Technology
Explain the causes and effects of the innovations in communication and technology in the United States over time.
A) New technologies and manufacturing techniques helped focus the U.S. economy on the production of consumer goods, contributing to improved standards of living, greater personal mobility, and better communication systems.
Henry Ford and the automobile: Henry Ford perfected the assembly line production method, making the automobile affordable for many Americans. The widespread adoption of the automobile revolutionized transportation, facilitated suburban growth, and profoundly impacted American industry and culture.
B) New forms of mass media, such as radio & cinema, contributed to the spread of national culture and greater awareness of regional cultures.
Hollywood and the film industry: The rise of Hollywood as the center of the American film industry during the early 20th century. Movies became a powerful new form of mass media and entertainment, shaping national culture, fashion, and social norms.
Thematic Focus: Innovation (INV)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
7.8 Cultural and Political Controversies
Explain the causes and effects of international and internal migration patterns over time.
A) By 1920, a majority of the U.S. population lived in urban centers, which offered new economic opportunities for women, international migrants, and internal migrants.
B) After World War I, nativist campaigns against some ethnic groups led to the passage of quotas that restricted immigration, particularly from southern and eastern Europe, & increased barriers to Asian immigration.
Ku Klux Klan, Birth of a Nation: The Ku Klux Klan experienced a resurgence in the 1920s, promoting white supremacy and nativism. D.W. Griffith's film "Birth of a Nation" (1915) glorified the KKK and perpetuated racist stereotypes, influencing public opinion and contributing to racial tensions.
Thematic Focus: American and Regional Culture (ARC)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
7.9 The Great Depression
Explain the causes of the Great Depression and its effects on the economy.
A) The United States continued its transition from a rural, agricultural economy to an urban, industrial economy led by large companies.
B) Episodes of credit and market instability in the early 20th century, in particular the Great Depression, led to calls for a stronger financial regulatory system.
Great Depression (1929-1941): A severe worldwide economic depression that began with the stock market crash in October 1929. It was characterized by widespread unemployment, poverty, bank failures, and a drastic decline in industrial production, profoundly impacting U.S. society and leading to significant government intervention.
C) During the 1930s, policymakers responded to the mass unemployment and social upheavals of the Great Depression by transforming the U.S. into a limited welfare state, redefining the goals and ideas of modern American liberalism.
Welfare state: A concept of government where the state takes on a primary responsibility for the social and economic welfare of its citizens, providing services such as social security, unemployment benefits, and healthcare. The New Deal marked a significant step towards the U.S. becoming a limited welfare state.
Federal Farm Board, Reconstruction Finance Corporation: Early Hoover administration responses to the looming economic crisis. The Federal Farm Board attempted to stabilize agricultural prices. The Reconstruction Finance Corporation provided loans to struggling corporations, banks, and railroads, but these efforts were insufficient to halt the deepening depression.
Thematic Focus: Economy (ECON)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
7.10 The New Deal
Explain how the Great Depression and the New Deal impacted American political, social, and economic life over time.
A) Franklin Roosevelt’s New Deal attempted to end the Great Depression by using government power to provide relief to the poor, stimulate recovery, and reform the American economy.
Franklin Roosevelt’s New Deal (1933-1939): A series of programs and reforms enacted during President Franklin D. Roosevelt's administration in response to the Great Depression. It aimed to provide relief for the unemployed and poor, economic recovery, and reform the financial system to prevent future depressions. Key programs included the CCC, PWA, AAA, and Social Security.
Federal Emergency Relief Administration, Public Works Administration, Civilian Conservation Corps, Tennessee Valley Authority, Emergency Banking Relief Act, Glass-Steagall Act, Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, National Recovery Administration, Securities and Exchange Commission, Federal Housing Administration, Works Progress Administration, Resettlement Administration, National Labor Relations Act, Social Security Act: A comprehensive list of key New Deal programs and legislation, demonstrating the vast scope of government intervention. These addressed unemployment, poverty, banking crises, industrial reform, infrastructure development, and established a social safety net.
B) Radical, union, and populist movements pushed Roosevelt toward more extensive efforts to change the American economic system, while conservatives in Congress and the Supreme Court sought to limit the New Deal’s scope.
Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), Fair Labor Standards Act: The CIO was a powerful labor federation that organized industrial workers. The Fair Labor Standards Act (1938) established a national minimum wage, overtime pay, and prohibited child labor in certain industries, marking a major victory for labor rights and a lasting component of the New Deal.
C) Although the New Deal did not end the Depression, it left a legacy of reforms and regulatory agencies and fostered a long-term political realignment in which many ethnic groups, African Americans, and working-class communities identified with the Democratic Party.
Fair Employment Practices Committee, Indian Reorganization Act: Examples showcasing the New Deal's impact on minority groups. The Fair Employment Practices Committee (FEPC, established via executive order) aimed to prevent racial discrimination in government and defense industries. The Indian Reorganization Act (1934) reversed elements of the Dawes Act, promoting tribal self-government and cultural preservation for Native Americans.
Thematic Focus: Politics and Power (PCE)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
7.11 Interwar Foreign Policy
Explain the similarities and differences in attitudes about the nation’s proper role in the world.
A) In the years following World War I, the United States pursued a unilateral foreign policy that used international investment, peace treaties, and select military intervention to promote a vision of international order, even while maintaining U.S. isolationism.
Washington Conference, Kellogg-Briand Pact, Dawes Plan, “Good Neighbor” Policy: Diplomatic initiatives of the interwar period reflecting a mix of international engagement and isolationism. The Washington Naval Conference (1921-1922) sought naval disarmament. The Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928) outlawed war. The Dawes Plan (1924) reorganized German reparations. The "Good Neighbor" Policy (FDR) aimed to improve relations with Latin American countries by explicitly rejecting interventionism.
B) In the 1930s, while many Americans were concerned about the rise of fascism and totalitarianism, most opposed taking military action against the aggression of Nazi Germany and Japan until the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor drew the United States into World War II.
Fascism: A far-right, authoritarian ultranationalist political ideology characterized by dictatorial power, forcible suppression of opposition, and strong regimentation of society and the economy. It was exemplified by Mussolini's Italy and Hitler's Germany.
Totalitarianism: A political system in which the state holds total authority over the society and seeks to control all aspects of public and private life wherever possible. Examples include Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and the Soviet Union under Stalin.
Neutrality Acts, “Cash and Carry”, Selective Service Act, Lend-Lease Act, Atlantic Charter: Legislative and diplomatic steps leading up to U.S. entry into WWII. The Neutrality Acts (1930s) aimed to keep the U.S. out of war. "Cash and Carry" (1939) allowed belligerents to buy U.S. arms if they paid cash and transported them. The Selective Service Act (1940) instituted the first peacetime draft. The Lend-Lease Act (1941) provided military aid to Allied nations. The Atlantic Charter (1941) was a joint declaration by Roosevelt and Churchill outlining post-war goals.
Thematic Focus: America in the World (WOR)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
7.12 World War II Mobilization
Explain how U.S. participation in World War II transformed American society.
A) The mass mobilization of American society helped end the Depression, and the country’s strong industrial base played a pivotal role in winning the war by equipping and provisioning allies and millions of US troops.
War Production Board, Office of Price Administration, Office of War Information: Government agencies created during WWII to manage the war economy and public opinion. The War Production Board converted industries to wartime production. The Office of Price Administration controlled inflation and rationed goods. The Office of War Information produced propaganda to maintain public support.
B) Mobilization provided opportunities for women and minorities to improve their socioeconomic positions for the war’s duration, while also leading to debates over racial segregation. Wartime experiences also generated challenges to civil liberties, such as the internment of Japanese Americans.
Internment of Japanese Americans: The forced removal and incarceration of approximately 120,000 Japanese Americans, including U.S. citizens, from their homes on the West Coast to concentration camps during World War II. It was a violation of civil liberties driven by wartime hysteria and racial prejudice.
Smith v. Allwright, Korematsu v. U.S.: Supreme Court cases reflecting wartime civil rights issues. Smith v. Allwright (1944) outlawed the white primary, affirming voting rights for African Americans. Korematsu v. U.S. (1944) upheld the constitutionality of Japanese American internment, a controversial decision that remains a stain on civil liberties.
C) Migration to the United States from Mexico and elsewhere in the Western Hemisphere increased, in spite of contradictory government policies towards Mexico immigration.
Thematic Focus: Social Structures (SOC)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
7.13 World War II Military
Explain the causes and effects of the victory of the United States and its allies over the Axis powers.
A) Americans viewed the war as a fight for the survival of freedom and democracy against fascist and militarist ideologies. The prospective was also reinforced by revelations about Japanese wartime atrocities, Nazi concentration camps, and the Holocaust.
Holocaust (1941-1945): The state-sponsored persecution and murder of six million Jews by the Nazi regime and its collaborators. This genocide, along with other atrocities committed by the Axis powers, profoundly shaped the Allied moral justification for fighting World War II.
B) The United States and its allies achieved military victory through Allied cooperation, technological and scientific advances, the contributions of servicemen and women, and campaigns such as Pacific “island-hopping” and the D-Day invasion. The use of atomic bombs hastened the end of the war and sparked debates about the morality of using atomic weapons.
D-Day invasion (June 6, 1944): The code name for the Battle of Normandy, the Allied invasion of German-occupied Western Europe during World War II. It was the largest seaborne invasion in history and marked a crucial turning point on the Western Front, leading to the liberation of France.
Battle of Midway: A decisive naval battle in June 1942 that was a major turning point in the Pacific Theater of World War II. The U.S. Navy inflicted a devastating defeat on the Japanese fleet, halting Japan's expansion and shifting the balance of power in the Pacific.
Thematic Focus: America in the World (WOR)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
7.14 World War II and Postwar Diplomacy
Explain the consequences of U.S. involvement in World War II.
A) The war-ravaged condition of Asia and Europe, and the dominant U.S. role in the Allied victory and postwar peace settlements, allowed the U.S. to emerge from the war as the most powerful nation on Earth.
Casablanca Conference, Tehran Conference, Yalta Conference, Potsdam Conference, The United Nations: Key wartime and postwar conferences shaping Allied strategy and the post-WWII world order. These conferences involved leaders like Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin, determining military plans, the fate of occupied territories, and the structure of international organizations like the United Nations, a new international body aimed at promoting peace and cooperation.
Thematic Focus: America in the World (WOR)
Period 8: 1945-1980
AP Exam Weighting: 10-17%
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
8.1 Contextualizing Period 8
Explain the context for societal change from 1945 to 1980.
A) The United States responded to an uncertain and unstable postwar world by asserting and working to maintain a position of global leadership, with far-reaching domestic and international consequences.
B) New movements for civil rights and liberal efforts to expand the role of the government generated a range of political and cultural responses.
End segregation: Refers to the dismantling of racial segregation, particularly in the Southern United States, through legal challenges, civil disobedience, and federal legislation during the Civil Rights Movement.
African American Civil Rights Movement: A broad social movement from the mid-1950s to the late 1960s aimed at ending racial segregation and discrimination against African Americans and securing equal rights under the law.
C) Postwar economic and demographic change had far-reaching consequences for American society, politics, and culture.
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
8.2 The Cold War from 1945 to 1980
Explain the continuities and changes in Cold War policies from 1945 to 1980.
A) United States policymakers engaged in a Cold War with the authoritarian Soviet Union, seeking to limit the growth of Communist military power and ideological influence, create a free-market global economy, and build an international security system.
Cold War (1947-1991): A geopolitical rivalry between the United States and its Western allies, and the Soviet Union and its satellite states. Characterized by ideological conflict, an arms race, proxy wars, and a lack of direct military conflict (hence "cold") between the two superpowers, profoundly shaping global politics and domestic U.S. policy.
World Bank: An international financial institution established after WWII to provide financial and technical assistance to developing countries, part of the U.S. effort to create a stable, free-market global economy.
B) As postwar tensions dissolved the wartime alliance between western democracies and the Soviet Union, the United States developed a foreign policy based on collective security, international aid, and economic institutions that bolstered non-Communist nations.
Truman Doctrine, Marshall Plan, NATO: Key policies of U.S. Cold War strategy. The Truman Doctrine (1947) pledged U.S. support to countries resisting communism. The Marshall Plan (1948) provided economic aid to help rebuild Western Europe, aiming to prevent the spread of communism by fostering stability. NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization, 1949) was a military alliance of Western nations for collective defense.
C) Concerned by expansionist Communist ideology and Soviet repression, the United States sought to contain communism through a variety of measures, including major military engagements in Korea.
Contain communism: The U.S. foreign policy strategy during the Cold War to prevent the spread of communism beyond its existing borders. This strategy involved diplomatic, economic, and military means, including alliances, foreign aid, and military interventions in proxy conflicts.
Bay of Pigs, Cuban Missile Crisis: Major Cold War confrontations. The Bay of Pigs Invasion (1961) was a failed U.S.-backed attempt to overthrow Fidel Castro in Cuba. The Cuban Missile Crisis (1962) was a 13-day confrontation between the U.S. and the Soviet Union over Soviet nuclear missiles deployed in Cuba, bringing the world to the brink of nuclear war.
D) The Cold War fluctuated between periods of direct and indirect military confrontation and periods of mutual coexistence (or detente).
Détente: A period of improved relations and reduced tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War, particularly in the 1970s. It involved increased diplomatic engagement, arms control agreements, and cultural exchanges, aimed at preventing nuclear war.
Brinkmanship: A foreign policy strategy, particularly associated with Secretary of State John Foster Dulles during the Eisenhower administration, of pushing dangerous events to the brink of catastrophe in order to achieve the most advantageous outcome. It involved escalating a threat of war to deter an opponent.
Thematic Focus: America in the World (WOR)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
8.3 The Red Scare
Explain the causes and effects of the Red Scare after World War II.
Red Scare: A period of intense anti-Communist paranoia and political repression in the United States, particularly from the late 1940s through the 1950s, driven by fears of Soviet infiltration and domestic subversion. It led to investigations, blacklists, and accusations of disloyalty.
A) Americans debated policies and methods designed to expose suspected communists within the United States even as both parties supported the broader strategy of containing communism.
House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC), McCarthyism: key institutions and phenomena of the Second Red Scare. HUAC was a congressional committee that investigated alleged disloyalty and subversive activities. McCarthyism refers to the practice of making accusations of subversion or treason without proper regard for evidence, popularized by Senator Joseph McCarthy's aggressive anti-Communist campaigns.
Thematic Focus: Politics and Power (PCE)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
8.4 Economy After 1945
Explain the causes of economic growth in the years after World War II.
A) A burgeoning private sector, federal spending, the baby boom, and technological developments helped spur economic growth.
Baby boom: The significant increase in the birth rate witnessed in the United States immediately after World War II, lasting from the mid-1940s to the early 1960s. This demographic surge had profound impacts on American society, economy, and culture during subsequent decades.
The Servicemen’s Readjustment Act (GI Bill): A 1944 act that provided a range of benefits for returning World War II veterans, including low-cost mortgages, educational stipends, and unemployment compensation. It significantly boosted the post-war economy and contributed to the growth of the middle class.
The Fair Deal, The New Frontier, The New Federalism: Presidential domestic programs. Truman's Fair Deal aimed for social reform and expansion of the New Deal. Kennedy's New Frontier (briefly) sought progress in space, poverty, and civil rights. Nixon's New Federalism aimed to decrease federal involvement and return power to the states.
B) As the higher education opportunities and new technologies rapidly expanded, increasing social mobility encouraged the migration of Americans to the South and West. The Sun Belt region emerged as a significant political and economic force.
Sun Belt: The region of the United States generally considered to stretch across the Southeast and Southwest, characterized by warm climates. Starting in the post-WWII era, it experienced rapid population and economic growth due to new job opportunities, climate, and the development of air conditioning, giving it increasing political power.
Thematic Focus: Economy (ECON)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
8.5 Culture After 1945
Explain how mass culture has been maintained or challenged over time.
A) Mass culture became increasingly homogeneous in the postwar years, inspiring challenges to conformity by artists, intellectuals, and rebellious youth.
Mass culture: The set of cultural ideas and values that are widely distributed and consumed by a large segment of the population, often through mass media like television, radio, and popular music. In the post-WWII era, it was often associated with suburban conformity and consumerism.
Consumer Culture: Television, Rock and Roll music, Paperback books, Fast Food: Elements of the burgeoning mass consumer culture in the post-WWII era. Television became a dominant form of media. Rock and Roll music embodied youth rebellion. Paperback books democratized reading. Fast food chains exemplified convenience and standardization.
Social Critics: The Catcher in the Rye, Catch-22, Beatniks: Cultural expressions challenging the conformity of postwar society. "The Catcher in the Rye" and "Catch-22" were influential novels that critiqued societal norms. Beatniks were members of the "Beat Generation," a countercultural literary movement that rejected mainstream values and consumerism.
Thematic Focus: American and Regional Culture (ARC)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
8.6 Early Steps in the Civil Rights Movement, 1945-1960
Explain how and why the civil rights movements developed and expanded from 1945 to 1960.
A) Seeking to fulfill Reconstruction-era promises, civil rights activists and political leaders achieved some legal and political successes in ending segregation, although progress toward racial equality was slow.
Little Rock, Montgomery bus boycott, sit-in movement: Early acts of the Civil Rights Movement. The Little Rock Nine (1957) involved federal troops enforcing school desegregation in Arkansas. The Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955-1956) successfully challenged bus segregation. The sit-in movement (beginning 1960) used nonviolent direct action to desegregate lunch counters.
Rosa Parks, Martin Luther King Jr.: Iconic figures of the Civil Rights Movement. Rosa Parks' refusal to give up her bus seat sparked the Montgomery Bus Boycott. Martin Luther King Jr. became the movement's most prominent leader, advocating for nonviolent civil disobedience.
NAACP, SCLC: Major civil rights organizations. The NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) focused on legal challenges to segregation. The SCLC (Southern Christian Leadership Conference), co-founded by MLK Jr., coordinated nonviolent direct action protests.
B) The three branches of the federal government used measures including desegregation of the armed services and Brown v Board of Education (1954) to promote greater racial equality.
Brown v. Board of Education (1954): A landmark Supreme Court case that ruled state-sponsored segregation in public schools was unconstitutional, overturning the "separate but equal" doctrine of Plessy v. Ferguson and providing a legal basis for the desegregation of all public institutions.
Thematic Focus: Social Structures (SOC)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
8.7 America as a World Power
Explain various military and diplomatic responses to international developments over time.
A) Cold War competition extended to Latin America, where the United States supported non-Communist regimes that had varying levels of commitment to democracy.
B) Americans debated the merits of a large nuclear military-industrial complex.
Military-Industrial Complex: A term coined by President Dwight D. Eisenhower in his farewell address (1961) referring to the close relationship between a nation's military and the defense industry, which supplies it. Eisenhower warned of its potential to gain unwarranted influence and threaten democratic processes.
C) Postwar decolonization and the emergence of powerful nationalist movements in Africa & Middle East led both sides in the Cold War to seek allies among new nations, many of which remained non-aligned.
CIA overthrow in Iran, Suez Canal Crisis, Yom Kippur War, Camp David Accords, Iran Hostage Crisis: Key U.S. interventions and diplomatic engagements in the Middle East during the Cold War. The CIA orchestrated the overthrow of Iran's prime minister in 1953. The Suez Canal Crisis (1956) was an international diplomatic confrontation. The Yom Kippur War (1973) led to an Arab oil embargo. The Camp David Accords (1978) were a peace agreement between Egypt and Israel. The Iran Hostage Crisis (1979-1981) involved the taking of American diplomats hostage by Iranian revolutionaries.
Thematic Focus: America in the World (WOR)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
8.8 The Vietnam War
Explain the causes and effects of the Vietnam War.
A) Concerned by expansionist Communist ideology and Soviet repression, the United States sought to contain communism through a variety of measures, including major military engagements in Vietnam.
Vietnam War (1955-1975): A prolonged conflict in Southeast Asia between communist North Vietnam and its allies, and South Vietnam and its main ally, the United States. The war became highly controversial in the U.S., causing significant social and political division. The U.S.'s involvement stemmed from its Cold War policy of containing communism.
Domino theory: A Cold War geopolitical theory that posited that if one country in a region came under the influence of communism, then the surrounding countries would follow in a domino effect. It was a primary justification for U.S. intervention in Vietnam and other Cold War conflicts.
Tonkin Gulf Resolution, Tet Offensive: Key events in the Vietnam War. The Tonkin Gulf Resolution (1964) granted President Johnson broad authority to use military force, escalating U.S. involvement. The Tet Offensive (1968), a major North Vietnamese and Viet Cong military campaign, was a tactical defeat for them but a strategic victory as it severely eroded American public support for the war.
B) Postwar decolonization and the emergence of powerful nationalist movements in Asia led both sides in the Cold War to seek allies among new nations, many of which remained non-aligned.
C) Americans debated the appropriate power of the executive branch in conducting foreign and military policy.
War Powers Act (1973): A federal law intended to check the U.S. president's power to commit the United States to an armed conflict without the consent of the U.S. Congress. Enacted after the Vietnam War, it requires the president to notify Congress within 48 hours of deploying armed forces and limits deployment to 60 days without congressional authorization.
Thematic Focus: America in the World (WOR)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
8.9 The Great Society
Explain the causes and effects of continuing policy debates about the role of government over time.
A) Despite overall affluence in postwar America, advocates raised concerns about the prevalence and persistence of poverty as a national problem.
“War on Poverty”: President Lyndon B. Johnson's ambitious legislative program (part of the Great Society) launched in 1964, aimed at alleviating poverty in the United States through various social and economic programs.
B) Liberalism, based on anti-communism abroad and a firm belief in the efficacy of government power to achieve social goals at home, reached a high point of political influence by the mid-1960s.
Liberalism: A political philosophy advocating for individual rights, civil liberties, democracy, and a government that actively promotes social welfare and equality. In the post-WWII era, American liberalism supported government intervention to address social and economic issues.
C) Liberal ideas found expression in Lyndon Johnson’s Great Society, which attempted to use federal legislation and programs to end racial discrimination, eliminate poverty, and address other social issues.
Lyndon Johnson’s Great Society: President Lyndon B. Johnson's sweeping set of domestic programs launched in the mid-1960s. Its main goals were to eliminate poverty and racial injustice, and to improve living conditions through federal initiatives in areas like education, healthcare, civil rights, and urban renewal.
Food Stamp Act, Medicare, Medicaid: Key programs of the Great Society. The Food Stamp Act provided food assistance to low-income individuals. Medicare provided health insurance for Americans aged 65 or older. Medicaid provided health coverage to low-income families and individuals.
Thematic Focus: Politics and Power (PCE)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
8.10 The African American Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s
Explain how and why various groups responded to calls for the expansion of civil rights from 1960 to 1980.
A) During and after World War II, civil rights activists and leaders, most notably Martin Luther King Jr., combated racial discrimination utilizing a variety of strategies, including legal challenges, direct action, and nonviolent protest tactics.
Martin Luther King Jr. (1929-1968): An iconic leader of the Civil Rights Movement, Baptist minister, and advocate for nonviolent civil disobedience to achieve racial equality. He played a pivotal role in major campaigns like the Montgomery Bus Boycott and the March on Washington, earning the Nobel Peace Prize.
“Letter from a Birmingham Jail”, March on Washington (1963), “I Have A Dream”: Significant contributions by Martin Luther King Jr. His "Letter from a Birmingham Jail" eloquently defended nonviolent protest. The March on Washington saw his famous "I Have a Dream" speech, advocating for racial harmony and equality, which became a defining moment for the Civil Rights Movement.
B) Continuing resistance slowed efforts of desegregation, sparking social and political unrest across the nation. Debates among civil rights activists over the efficacy of nonviolence increased after 1965.
Malcolm X, Black Panthers, 1965 race riots, Assassination of MLK Jr.: Figures and events reflecting the shift and diversification within the Black Civil Rights Movement. Malcolm X advocated for black nationalism, self-defense, and racial separatism before modifying his views. The Black Panther Party (1966) championed Black Power and self-defense. Race riots in cities like Watts (1965) highlighted urban racial inequalities. The assassination of MLK Jr. (1968) led to widespread mourning and further urban unrest.
Thematic Focus: Politics and Power (PCE)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
8.11 The Civil Rights Movement Expands
Explain how and why various groups responded to calls for the expansion of civil rights from 1960 to 1980.
A) Latino, American Indian, and Asian American movements continued to demand social and economic equality and a redress of past injustices.
Latino Americans: Cesar Chavez, United Farm Workers Association: Cesar Chavez was a prominent labor leader and civil rights activist who co-founded the United Farm Workers Association. He used nonviolent tactics, such as boycotts and fasts, to advocate for the rights of migrant farmworkers, primarily Latino Americans.
American Indian Movement: Indian Self-Determination Act of 1975: The American Indian Movement (AIM) was a Native American rights organization founded in 1968, advocating for sovereignty, self-determination, and the honoring of treaties. The Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975 gave tribal governments greater control over their internal affairs and resources.
B) Feminist and gay and lesbian activists mobilized behind claims for legal, economic, and social equality.
Feminist: An individual who advocates for political, economic, personal, and social equality of the sexes. The feminist movement of the 1960s and 1970s (second-wave feminism) expanded its focus beyond voting rights to include issues like workplace discrimination, reproductive rights, and domestic violence.
C) Feminists who participated in the counterculture of the 1960s rejected many of the social, economic, and political values of their parents’ generation and advocated changes in sexual norms.
Counterculture: A subculture whose values and norms of behavior differ substantially from those of mainstream society, often in opposition to mainstream cultural mores (e.g., the youth movement of the 1960s).
Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique: An influential book published in 1963 by Betty Friedan, which is credited with sparking second-wave feminism. It challenged the notion that women's sole fulfillment came from domesticity and exposed the "problem that has no name"—the widespread unhappiness of middle-class American women.
Equal Pay Act of 1963, Equal Rights Amendment: Legislative efforts for women's equality. The Equal Pay Act aimed to abolish wage disparity based on sex. The Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), proposed in the 1970s, sought to guarantee legal gender equality, but it failed to be ratified.
Thematic Focus: Social Structures (SOC)
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
8.12 Youth Culture of the 1960s
Explain how and why opposition to existing policies and values developed and changed over the course of the 20th century.
A) Although anti-communist foreign policy faced little domestic opposition in previous years, the Vietnam War inspired sizable and passionate anti-war protests that became more numerous as the war escalated and sometimes led to violence.
Anti-war protests: Public demonstrations and movements expressing opposition to military conflicts, particularly the Vietnam War. These protests grew in size and intensity throughout the 1960s and early 1970s, contributing to a significant cultural and political divide within the U.S.
Yippies, Weather Underground, Free Speech Movement: Radical and counterculture groups of the 1960s that protested the Vietnam War and societal injustices. The Yippies (Youth International Party) used theatrical antics. The Weather Underground was a militant radical leftist group. The Free Speech Movement (at Berkeley) advocated for student rights and challenged university authority.
B) Some groups on the left also rejected liberal policies, arguing that political leaders did too little to transform the racial and economic status quo at home and pursued immoral policies abroad.
C) Young people who participated in the counterculture of the 1960s rejected many of the social, economic, and political values of their parents’ generation, introduced greater informality into US culture, and advocated changes in sexual norms.
Woodstock: Folk and Rock music: Woodstock (1969) was a legendary music festival exemplifying the counterculture movement, promoting peace, love, and rock music, and solidifying the cultural power of folk and rock music in the youth movement.
Sexual Revolution: Roe v Wade, contraception: A period of changing societal attitudes towards sex and sexuality, particularly in the 1960s. The availability of contraception (like the birth control pill) and the Supreme Court decision Roe v. Wade (1973), which legalized abortion, were key components.
Topic: Learning Objective Historical Developments
8.13 The Environment and Natural Resources from 1968 to 1980
Explain how and why policies related to the environment developed and changed from 1968 to 1980.
A) Ideological, military, and economic concerns shaped US involvement in the Middle East, with several oil crises in the region eventually sparking attempts at creating a national energy policy.
Oil crises: Periods of significant disruption in the global oil supply and sharp increases in oil prices, notably in the 1970s. The 1973 Arab oil embargo (following the Yom Kippur War) and the 1979 Iranian Revolution triggered economic instability and prompted U.S. efforts to develop a national energy strategy.
Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring, Paul Ehrlich The Population Bomb: Influential books that raised public awareness about environmental issues. Rachel Carson's "Silent Spring" (1962) exposed the dangers of pesticides. Paul Ehrlich's "The Population Bomb" (1968) warned of overpopulation and its ecological consequences, contributing to the rise of environmental activism.
Anti-nuclear Movement: A social movement that became prominent in the 1970s, protesting against nuclear weapons, nuclear power, and the perceived dangers of both, often gaining traction after incidents like the Three Mile Island accident.
B) Environmental problems and accidents led to a growing environmental movement that aimed to use legislative and public efforts to combat pollution and protect natural resources. The federal government established new environmental programs and regulations.
Earth Day, Wilderness Act, Environmental Protection Agency, Clean Air and Water Act, Endangered Species Act: Key landmarks in the development of environmental policy. Earth Day (first held in 1970) raised public awareness. The Wilderness Act (1964) protected undeveloped federal lands. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA, 1970) was created to regulate pollution. The Clean Air Act (1970) and Clean Water Act (1972) established federal standards for pollution control. The Endangered Species Act (1973) protected imperiled species and their ecosystems.
Thematic Focus: Environment and Geography (ENV)
Period 9: 1980- Present
AP Exam Weighting: 4-6%
9.1 Contextualizing Period 9
Context for Challenges (1980 onwards)
The United States faced significant international and domestic challenges after 1980, marking a pivot point in American history.
A) A newly ascendant conservative movement, fueled by dissatisfaction with government expansion, social changes, and Cold War anxieties, achieved several political and policy goals in the 1980s under figures like Ronald Reagan and continued to strongly influence public discourse in subsequent decades, emphasizing individual liberty, limited government, and traditional values.
B) As the nation moved into the 21st century, it experienced significant technological, economic, and demographic changes, including the rise of the internet, a more globalized economy, increasing automation, and a diversifying population with shifts to the Sun Belt.
C) The end of the Cold War dissolved the bipolar world order and presented new challenges to US leadership, forcing the nation to redefine its foreign policy and its role in a unipolar or multipolar global landscape, grappling with regional conflicts, terrorism, and economic competition.
9.2 Reagan and Conservatism
Continuing Policy Debates
Explain the causes and effects of policy debates about the role of the federal government over time, intensified by conservative resurgence.
A) Ronald Reagan's victory in the 1980 presidential election was an important milestone that allowed conservatives to enact significant cuts to social programs and continue the deregulation of various industries. His administration aimed to reduce government spending (except for defense), cut taxes, and curb inflation.
Notable policies include Reaganomics, an economic policy based on supply-side economics (also known as "trickle-down economics"), which advocated for widespread tax cuts, reduced social spending, increased military spending, and the deregulation of domestic markets. The Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981 (ERTA) was a cornerstone of Reaganomics, significantly cutting income taxes across the board for individuals and businesses.
B) Conservatives argued that liberal programs, such as those created during the New Deal and Great Society, were counterproductive in fighting poverty and stimulating economic growth, fostering dependency rather than self-sufficiency. Some efforts to reduce the size and scope of government faced inertia and liberal opposition, despite the popularity of many programs (like Social Security and Medicare) with voters.
C) Ongoing policy debates revolved around free-trade agreements (e.g., impact on American jobs), the scope of the government’s social safety net (e.g., welfare reform), and calls to reform the US financial system (e.g., Glass-Steagall Act repeal and subsequent financial crises).
D) Conservative beliefs concerning the need for traditional social values (e.g., family values, opposition to abortion and LGBTQ+ rights) and a reduced governmental role (e.g., less regulation, state-level decision-making) advanced significantly in US politics post-1980, largely influenced by the rise of the religious right.
E) Intense political and cultural debates persisted over issues such as:
Immigration Policy: Debates concerning border security, pathways to citizenship, and the economic and cultural impact of immigrants.
Diversity: Discussions about affirmative action, multiculturalism, and identity politics.
Gender Roles and Family Structures: Evolving societal norms challenged traditional gender expectations and definitions of family.
Gun Rights: Disputes over the Second Amendment and gun control legislation, often escalating after mass shootings.
Examples:
Brady Bill (1993): Mandated federal background checks for firearm purchases and imposed a five-day waiting period, named after James Brady, who was shot during the assassination attempt on Ronald Reagan.
District of Columbia v. Heller (2008): The Supreme Court affirmed an individual's right to possess firearms for traditionally lawful purposes, such as self-defense in the home, effectively striking down D.C.'s handgun ban.
Social Justice: Ongoing struggles and legislative changes related to civil rights, discrimination, and equality for various groups.
Examples:
“Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell” (1994-2010): A US military policy that allowed homosexual people to serve as long as they did not reveal their sexual orientation. It was repealed in 2010, allowing openly gay, lesbian, and bisexual individuals to serve.
Obergefell v. Hodges (2015): The Supreme Court ruled that the right to marry is guaranteed to same-sex couples by both the Due Process Clause and the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, making same-sex marriage legal nationwide.
9.3 The End of the Cold War
Causes and Effects of the Cold War
Explain the legacy of the Cold War and its complex conclusion.
A) Reagan asserted US opposition to communism through various means: strong anti-communist speeches (e.g., "Evil Empire" speech), diplomatic efforts (e.g., summits with Gorbachev), limited military interventions (e.g., Grenada), and a massive buildup of both nuclear and conventional weapons, demonstrating American resolve and economic strength.
Key initiatives mentioned:
Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), popularly known as “Star Wars,” was a proposed missile defense system intended to protect the United States from attack by ballistic strategic nuclear weapons. While never fully realized, its technological challenge put immense pressure on the Soviet Union.
Iran-Contra Affair: A political scandal in the mid-1980s where the Reagan administration secretly facilitated the sale of arms to Iran in exchange for American hostages, and illegally diverted profits to fund the Contras in Nicaragua, violating congressional bans.
Challenges such as the Israel-Palestine Conflict continued to complicate superpower relations and regional stability, often drawing both US and Soviet attention.
B) Increased US military spending, along with Reagan’s diplomatic initiatives (such as his rhetoric and personal relationship with Mikhail Gorbachev) and the political and economic challenges faced by Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union (e.g., economic stagnation, internal dissent, failure in Afghanistan), were crucial in ending the Cold War.
Important agreements include:
INF Agreement (Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty, 1987): Signed by Reagan and Gorbachev, it eliminated all nuclear and conventional ground-launched ballistic and cruise missiles with ranges of 500 to 5,500 kilometers (310 to 3,420 miles).
START I (Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty, 1991) and START II (1993) agreements: Successive treaties between the US and the Russian Federation aimed at reducing and limiting strategic offensive arms.
Key movements and events:
Solidarity Movement in Poland: A non-governmental trade union movement that widely contributed to the collapse of communism in Eastern Europe.
Fall of the USSR in December 1991 and the Berlin Wall in November 1989: Iconic events symbolizing the rapid decline of Soviet power and the end of the Cold War.
C) The end of the Cold War ushered in new diplomatic relationships (e.g., with former Soviet bloc nations) and new US military and peacekeeping interventions, while continuing to spark debates over the appropriate use of American power globally, particularly concerning unilateralism vs. multilateralism.
Notable conflicts include:
Persian Gulf War (1990-1991): A military operation led by the US with a coalition of forces to expel Iraqi forces from Kuwait, often cited as a demonstration of America's post-Cold War military dominance.
Ethnic Cleansing in Bosnia (early 1990s): A brutal campaign of mass expulsion and murder during the Bosnian War, which eventually prompted NATO and US intervention under President Clinton.
9.4 A Changing Economy
Economic and Technological Change
Explain the causes and effects of economic and technological transformations over time, profoundly reshaping American society.
A) Increased economic productivity was facilitated by advancements in digital communications (e.g., personal computers, fiber optics, mobile phones, the internet), which enabled greater American participation in global economic opportunities through faster information exchange, supply chain management, and e-commerce.
Key concepts include:
Globalization: The process by which businesses or other organizations develop international influence or start operating on an international scale, driven by technology and deregulation. This era saw the rise of multinational corporations and increasingly interconnected economies.
Institutions like NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement), which eliminated tariffs between the US, Canada, and Mexico; the World Trade Organization (WTO), which regulates international trade; the International Monetary Fund (IMF), which promotes global monetary cooperation; and the World Bank, which provides financial and technical assistance to developing countries, exemplified increased global economic integration.
B) Technological innovations in computing (e.g., personal computers, microprocessors), digital mobile technology (e.g., cell phones, smartphones), and the internet transformed daily life and society, leading to increased access to information, new social behaviors (e.g., online communities, social media), and new forms of communication and entertainment.
C) A significant shift occurred in employment from manufacturing to service sectors (e.g., healthcare, finance, retail, technology), driven by automation, global competition, and increased consumer demand for services. This shift contributed to a decline in union membership, as service jobs were historically less unionized and manufacturing jobs moved overseas.
D) Despite increased productivity, real wages stagnated for the working and middle class, meaning their purchasing power did not significantly increase, due to factors such as global competition, automation, decline in union power, and income concentration at the top. This stagnation, coupled with rising costs of living, contributed to heightened economic inequality.
9.5 Migration and Immigration in the 1990s and 2000s
Domestic and International Migration
Explain the causes and effects of domestic and international migration over time, reshaping the nation's demographics and cultural landscape.
A) Post-1980, the political, economic, and cultural influence of the American South and West increased significantly as the population shifted towards those regions. This intra-American migration, often called the "Sun Belt" migration, was driven by factors such as milder climates, lower taxes, burgeoning high-tech and defense industries, and a lower cost of living, leading to increased political representation and economic power in these states.
B) International migration from Latin America (e.g., Mexico, Central America) and Asia (e.g., China, India, Philippines) rose dramatically, significantly influencing US culture (e.g., increased linguistic diversity, new cuisines, religious practices) and providing essential labor for the economy, particularly in agriculture, construction, and service industries. This influx also fueled debates over immigration policy and assimilation.
Legislative measures include:
Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 (IRCA): Aimed to control illegal immigration by penalizing employers who hired undocumented immigrants and offering amnesty to millions of undocumented immigrants who had arrived before 1982.
Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigration Responsibility Act of 1996 (IIRIRA): Focused on strengthening border enforcement and streamlined the process for deporting undocumented immigrants, increasing penalties for immigration violations.
9.6 Challenges of the 21st Century
Domestic and International Challenges
Explain the causes and effects of challenges faced by the United States in the 21st century, from terrorism to climate change.
A) Following the devastating attacks on the World Trade Center in New York City and the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia, on September 11, 2001, the US initiated military efforts against terrorism. This led to prolonged and often controversial conflicts in Afghanistan (aimed at dismantling Al-Qaeda and its Taliban hosts) and Iraq (ostensibly to remove Saddam Hussein and eliminate Weapons of Mass Destruction, though WMDs were not found).
Notable entities include:
Al-Qaeda: A global militant Sunni Islamist terrorist organization founded by Osama bin Laden, responsible for the 9/11 attacks.
Saddam Hussein: The dictator of Iraq who was removed from power during the Iraq War.
Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMDs): Chemical, biological, or nuclear weapons, whose alleged presence in Iraq was a primary justification for the 2003 invasion.
Related movements include the Arab Spring (a series of anti-government protests, uprisings, and armed rebellions across much of the Arab world in the early 2010s) and the emergence of ISIS (Islamic State of Iraq and Syria), a powerful and violent jihadist insurgent group that gained prominence in the wake of the Iraq War and Arab Spring.
B) The war on terrorism aimed to enhance security within the United States; however, it raised significant questions about the protection of civil liberties and human rights, particularly concerning surveillance, detention policies, and racial profiling.
Legislative and organizational initiatives identified:
USA PATRIOT Act (2001): Passed shortly after 9/11, it dramatically expanded the government’s surveillance powers, allowing for broader monitoring of communications and financial transactions.
Department of Homeland Security (2002): Created to consolidate various government agencies involved in domestic security efforts, aiming to protect the nation from terrorist attacks and other threats.
C) Ongoing conflicts in the Middle East (e.g., Syrian Civil War, Iranian nuclear program) and growing concerns regarding climate change (evidenced by extreme weather events and rising sea levels) generated debates surrounding US dependence on fossil fuels for energy and the environmental impact of economic consumption.
Relevant agreements include:
Kyoto Accords (1997): An international treaty committing State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, which the US signed but did not ratify.
Paris Agreement (2015): A landmark international accord within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), dealing with greenhouse gas emission reductions, adaptation, and finance, signed and ratified by the US (though it later withdrew and rejoined).
D) Despite facing numerous economic and foreign policy challenges, including the rise of China and Russia, the United States remained the world’s leading superpower into the 21st century, maintaining significant military, economic, and cultural influence.
Key points of foreign policy include:
Ukraine’s overthrow of a pro-Russia government in 2014, leading to Russian annexation of Crimea and ongoing conflict, challenging US and European diplomacy.
The Iran Nuclear Deal (Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action, 2015): An agreement reached between Iran and the P5+1 nations (US, UK, France, China, Russia, plus Germany) to prevent Iran from developing nuclear weapons in exchange for sanctions relief.
Cuban Peace Talks (2014-2016): Under the Obama administration, the US began normalizing relations with Cuba after over 50 years of estrangement.
Noteworthy events like WikiLeaks: An international non-profit organization that publishes secret information, news leaks, and classified media provided by anonymous sources, sparking debates about transparency, national security, and journalism.
Domestic policies established:
No Child Left Behind Act (2002): A federal law passed under President George W. Bush aimed at improving educational outcomes by holding schools accountable for student achievement standards.
Response to Hurricane Katrina (2005): A devastating hurricane that highlighted failures in government disaster preparedness and response, particularly affecting New Orleans.
The Great Recession (2007-2009): A severe economic downturn, followed by the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (ARRA), a stimulus package enacted under President Obama to boost the economy through government spending and tax cuts.
The Every Student Succeeds Act (2015): Replaced No Child Left Behind, returning more control over K-12 education policy to the states.
The Affordable Care Act (Obamacare, 2010): A comprehensive healthcare reform law signed by President Obama aimed at expanding health insurance coverage to millions of uninsured Americans and regulating the health insurance industry.