Principles and theories of learning and performance

Learning

Permanent change in behaviour as a result of practice

performance

temporary occurrence that can change from time to time because of many external and internal factors

Cognitive stage of learning

First stage of learning

• thinks carefully about actions

• try to copy demonstrations, instructions

• use extrinsic feedback

• movements slow and uncoordinated

• motor programmes not formed so trial and error

Associative stage

• from competent beginner to accomplished performer

• has to practice to make progress

• trial and error used for perfection

• more internal feedback

• compare their level to a performer, so they adjust practice to reach that level

• movements smoother + more coordinated

A

Autonomous stage

• Actions are fluent, efficent and automatic

• concentrates on fine details

• basic skills performed without thinking

• motor programme fully developed + can help in fine control of actions

• elite performers

Feedback

Information to aid error correction, make improvements and amend performance

Positive feedback

effort, what was good, offers motivation to maintain effort, form of encouragement

Negative feedback

what is going wrong, correcting errors + eliminating bad habits, more experienced players use negative feedback

Extrinsic feedback

from outside source, performer gains a view of what they need to improve on

Intrinsic feedback

when performer developed a feel for sense, internal feel to know when they have made a mistake

Knowledge of Results

feedback which gives an initial outcome of the attempted skill.

was the skill successful?

Knowledge of Performance

why the technique was successful or not, how the technique can be developed to produce a better performance than the last attempt

Learning Plateau

Period during performance where there are no signs of improvement

Learning Curve + 4 stages

visual representation of what happens when a closed skill is performed repeatedly over a period of time by a novice.

Stage 1:

• Rate of learning is slow

• performance is poor as task is new (cognitive stage)

Stage 2:

• rapid acceleration in rate of learning as performer has begun to master task

• success = motivation + reinforcement

Stage 3:

• no improvement in rate of learning

• maintains performance level

Stage 4:

• end of task where performance might decrease

Drive reduction

AN end of task period when performance might get worse due to the performer gaining success on task + initial drive to succeed has been lost.

Causes of the plateau

1. lack of motivation

2. boredom

3. coaching

4. limit of ability

5. targets set too low

6. fatigue

Solutions to the plateau effect

1. set a new challenge to test the performer so they set new goals to reach the

2. find a new coach

3. more praise + positive reinforcement

4. rest could be taken to avoid fatigue

5. variety of task

6. concept of plateau can be taught to performer so that they don’t take personal responsibility for their lack of improvement

7. get some feedback to help improve performance + motivation

Visual guidance

• Demonstration of task

• create mental image for a beginner to use as a reference

• make sure the video or performance is within the capability of the performer to maintain motivation and confidence

• coach needs to show from different angles + show multiple times

Advantages of visual guidance

• highlight a specific weakness

• show what the skill really looks like

• used in conjunction with verbal guidance

Disadvantages of visual guidance

• demonstration must be completely accurate otherwise it can be copied incorrectly + performer might not have ability to perform it

• if too much info given, performer may be confused

Verbal guidance

Explanation of the task, used in conjunction with visual guidance.

coach speaks to performer during demonstration to highlight points

helps build correct mental image

Problems and considerations when using verbal guidance

• if too much info given → confusion + too much demand on the memory system

• may lose concentration unless makes verbal info brief, relevant + meaningful

• language must be understandable, beginner should be able to recognise terms

• means of giving feedback so coach should ensure corect type of feedback is used for the performer

Manual guidance

physically supporting a performer during a movement.

can force a response

Advantages of manual guidance

• help to eliminate danger

• helps build confidence of performer who might not be able to gain the feel of the whole task

• reduce in fear + anxiety if support is on hand to help the performer

• if task is more complex, can be broken down into stages

D

Disadvantages of manual guidance

• can have detrimental effect on performance if overused

• too much reliance on physical support can interfere with feel of the task → develop bad habits

• may depend on support too much, cant do task without the help

• coach should restrict control to avoid over usage

Mechanical guidance

device/ artificial aids used to help performance

Positives of mechanical guidance

• eliminates danger

• gives early feel for skill , helps promote learning

• can be used with disabled athlete/those recovering with injury

Disadvantages with mechanical guidance

• If used too much, can interfere with feel of skill

• performer might depend on it too much, cant complete without help = loss of confidence

Operant conditioning

Use of reinforcement and punishment to ensure that the correct responses are repeated by linking the stimulus to the response

Skinner’s Rat box experiment

• based on trial and error

• coach might manipulate environment

• shapes behaviour by using reinforcement

Satisfier

An action that promotes a pleasant feeling so that responses are repeated

Annoyer

An action that creates unease to promote the avoidance of incorrect responses

Stimulus response bond

• Operant conditioning works by strengthening link between stimulus and response

• linking appropriate response to stimulus results in actions learned

• coaches link by using positive, negative reinforcement + punishment

• reinforcement → increase confidence + task persistence so players keep trying

Observational learning (Bandura)

• suggests acceptable and unacceptable behaviour can be learned by watching and then copying other people

4 Processes that a performer is more likely to copy a model demonstration

1. Attention → making sure the performer takes notes of the relevant cues by making the demo “attractive”

2. retention - ability to remember the demo and be able to recall it, make sure its accurate + clear

3. motor reproduction - make sure the player has the mental + physical ability to complete the task

4. motivation - the drive to copy the demo.

Social development theory (Vygotsky)

• Interaction with others can produce learning by social development (learning by association with others)

• skills can be learned from others, called MKO’s

• Skills learned through Inter-psychological learning (learning through others externally, uses MKO to get advice, feedback + tactical knowledge)

• Then intra-psychological learning (learning from within after gaining external knowledge from others)

Constructivism - Vygotsky + Zone of proximal development

• building up learning in stages based on current level of performance

• 3 levels of performance to improve

  • What can i do alone

  • what can i do with help

  • what cant i do

Insight learning

• Using previous experience and understanding to solve problems relating to whole skill

• concentrates on the whole task →good for use in realistic situations that are linked to game/event

• encourages performer to think for themselves and developed cognitive process