Electoral Systems

2.1 Political parties. • The functions and features of political parties in the UK’s representative democracy. • How parties are currently funded and debates on the consequences of the current funding system. 2.2 Established political parties. • The origins and historical development of the Conservative Party, the Labour Party and Liberal Democrat Party, and how this has shaped their ideas and current policies on the economy, law and order, welfare and foreign affairs. 2.3 Emerging and minor UK political parties. • The importance of other parties in the UK. • The ideas and policies of two other minor parties. 2.4 UK political parties in context. • The development of a multi-party system and its implications for government. • Various factors that affect party success – explanations of why political parties have succeeded or failed, including debates on the influence of the media.

electoral systems

mechanisms by which votes cast by citizens are translated into seats won in an assembly/political office

What is the UK’s electoral system?

FPTP

functions of elections

* **Representation**: citizens vote for people to act on their behalf in the decision making process
* **Participation**: most obvious way citizens participate in politics
* **Accountability**: elections offer citizens opportunity to hold MPs to account and pass verdict on govt performance
* **Influence over policy**: elections defeats can send message to unpopular manifestos
* **Choosing govt**: voters are choosing a govt and granting it legitimacy, gives it mandate to act for next 5 yrs

Types of electoral systems

* **Plurality systems**: requires candidates to win most votes
* **Majoritarian systems**: requires candidates to win absolute majority of votes in a certain area
* **Proportional representation**: attempts to secure closest relationship possible between votes cast and seats won
* **Hybrid systems**: combines aspects of majoritarian/plurality and proportional systems

What is First Past the Post?

plurality system in which voters cast a vote for one candidate in their constituency

How does first past the post work?

1. UK split into 650 constituencies, each electing 1 local MP
2. voters cast their vote for candidate of their choice
3. candidate who receives the **most votes wins**

How is a majority govt formed?

Parties aiming to reach 326 MPs, in theory

Only 315 MPs actually needed in practice

* PM usually leader of largest party

hung parliament

when no party have an overall majority

traditionally rare

Features of FPTP

* creates 2 party system
* creates a winners bonus
* encourages wasted votes and tactical voting
* discriminates against smaller parties
* encourages single party govt

progressive alliance

left wing parties should not stand against each other

2019 General Election

**most people did not vote for winning party**

* Tory 365 seats, Labour 203
* Tory 43% of votes, Labour 32%, Lib Dem 11%

For FPTP

* close link between MPs and constituents
* Labour MP Stephen Timms held record for greatest number of surgeries in 2011
* prevents extremists views
* UKIP - 12% votes but only 1 seat in govt (2015 GE)
* simple and easy to understand
* tend to produce single party majority govts with clear mandates and manifestos
* govts are easily held to account by electorate

Against FPTP

* unrepresentative
* many wasted votes
* creates 2 party system
* differing population sizes mean votes are not counted equally
* Isle of Wight 109 000 electorate

Western Isles 21 200
* safe seats
* exaggerates mandate that govt has

Supplementary Vote

used to elect English mayors (eg. Mayor of London) and all Police and Crime Commissioners

* majoritarian system
* each voter has 2 votes and ranks in order of preference
* if no candidates win majority (50%+1) all but top 2 candidates are eliminated, with second choice votes adding to the first choice votes to produce outright winner

Example of supplementary vote in use (May 2021)

used to elect Sadiq Khan

won 40% of 1st round votes, then 55% when 2nd preferences from eliminated candidates were counted

For Supplementary Vote

* easy and simple to use and understand
* voters have more choice than FPTP = fewer wasted votes
* avoids third placed candidates emerging victorious
* has allowed some independent candidates to win
* 2012: 12/40 of PCCs were independent

Against Supplementary Vote

* not proportional
* significant number of wasted votes still
* no need for absolute majority, candidates can still win without 50% of first or second preferences
* encourages tactical voting

Alternative Vote

used for Lib Dem and Labour leadership elections

* majoritarian system
* voters rank how every many candidates they want in terms of preference
* if no candidates win majority (50%+1) in the first round, whoever came last is removed and ballot papers with them as their fav are counted under the second preference. Repeats until one candidate has majority

67% voted No in referendum to change GE electing system from FPTP to AV in 2011

Example of alternative vote in use (Sept 2010)

Labour leadership battle after Tory 2010 victory, David Milliband had more 1st preference votes but was beaten by Ed Milliband on second preferences from eliminated candidates

For AV

* cuts safe seats and reduces wasted votes
* makes MPs work harder as they have to appeal to a broader audience
* voters have more options to reflect their feelings about politicians

Against AV

* too complicated for most voters to understand
* cost lots of money
* still not proportional, some would get their votes counted more than others
* encourages tactical voting

Single Transferable Vote

used for local assembly elections in NI and local council elections in Scotland

* proportional system
* uses multi-member constituencies
* seats are allocated proportionally in accordance with the popular vote through the Droop formula (\[votes/ seats+1\] +1)

Example of STV in use (2017)

NI 2017 local elections

DUP 28.1% votes = 28 seats

Sinn Fein 27.9% = 27 seats

For STV

* multi member constituencies mean constituents have better choice when seeking assistance, and more likely to represent population accurately
* more ‘power to the people’ with greater voter choice
* proportionally representative

Against STV

* complicated to understand
* local link between voters and single MP is removed, reducing accountability
* can lead to weak coalitions, who to hold accountable?

Party List

used for elections to European Parliament in England, Scotland and Wales since 1999

* proportional representation
* seats are allocated proportionally in accordance with the popular through D’Hondt formula (\[votes/MEP+1\]+1)

Example of Party list being used (May 2019)

May 2019 European Elections

Brexit 31.6% votes = 39% seats

Lib Dem 20.3% = 22% seats

Labour 14.1% = 10 seats

For Party List

* high degree of proportionality
* political parties use their lists to increase number of women and ethnic minority candidates
* encourages voters to think about parties they are voting for rather than just local members

Against Party List

* link between representatives and constituents (who to hold accountable?)
* voters cannot choose between candidates from the same party
* parties control the order in which candidates are placed onto the list, can use this power to favour certain people
* 2016, Richard Tice donated £38 000 to Farage’s ‘Grassroots out’ campaign against EU, was put at the top of the list for East of England

Additional Member System

used to elect regional representatives to Scottish and Welsh devolved parliaments

* hybrid system (combines both FPTP and regional list)
* each voter has 2 votes: one for local candidate, one for party)
* 2/3 of seats are elected using FPTP (local candidate with most vote wins)
* 1/3 of seats elected from ‘top up’ closed party list (parties who do well in constituencies, have their votes adjusted upwards)

Example of AMS being used (Scotland 2021)

Scotland

total number of MSPs = 129

* 73 voted directly from FPTP constituencies
* 56 from ‘top up lists’ 8 regions each with 7 members

SNP = 62 constituencies, 64 seats

Tory = 5 constituencies, 31 seats

Lib Dem = 4 constituencies, 4 seats

For AMS

* voters have more choice as they have 2 votes
* minority/underrepresented candidates have better representation as parties place them high up closed regional lists
* ‘top up’ component = more proportionally representative of citizens
* FPTP local link between constituents and MSP is maintained

Against AMS

* additional members do not have specific constituency and are therefore not directly accountable to a set of electors
* closed list is used, which gives huge power to party leadeship and not voters
* smaller parties still underrepresented
* seen in Wales, with just 20 top up seats advantaging Labour

referendum

vote on a single issue put before the electorate by the govt, usually in the form of a question requiring a yes or no response

Why has FPTP survived Westminster elections?

* the outcomes it produces usually suit the interests of the 2 largest parties, who have monopolised govt since 1945
* coalition offered referendum on AV in 2011, rejected with 67% saying No
* FPTP is familiar and easy to use

Why was AMS adopted for Scottish and Welsh elections?

* compromise by Labour with SNP and Lib Dems who initially wanted STV
* AMS was compromise between fair representation without requiring radical overhaul like STV

Why was STV adopted in NI?

ability to provide fair representation of both sides of the sectarian divide, avoiding conflict between nationalists and unionists

* enshrined in 1998 Good Friday Agreement

Why was SV used to elect mayors?

chosen because it was easier to use and winner would have a clear mandate, with 3rd party candidates being less likely to win

History of referendums in UK

for several generations in post-war era, they were seen as incompatible with UK’s political culture

* ‘only to often been the instrument of Nazism and facism’ - Clement Atlee, PM 1945-51


* 1st referedum: 8th March 1973 in NI, 98.9% voted to remain a part of the UK
* boycotted by Catholic nationalists

What did AV Dicey say about referendums? (synoptic link to UK govt)

‘They would bring in men to the ballot box who now hardly vote at all’ - A.V Dicey

1998 Good Friday Agreement Referendum

* held in NI over whether there was support for the Good Friday Agreement
* Yes campaign supported by all main UK political parties, also by celebs such as Bono
* No campaign supported by local branch of Conservatives

\
turnout = 81.1%

Yes = 71.1%

Significance of 1998 Good Friday Agreement Referendum

* kept peace as both Protestants and Catholics voted yes in this agreement
* ensured safe retreat to a united Ireland that is both democratic and a huge majority can agree on

2011 AV Referendum

introduced to replace FPTP

\
Turnout = 42.2%

No = 67.9%

Significance of 2011 AV Referendum

shows inability of left wing parties to cooperate with Labour wanting AV, Lib Dems wanting PR and Tories wanting FPTP

1997 Welsh Devolution referendum

was a Labour manifesto commitment and held to determine if there was support for the creation of a national assembly for Wales and therefore a degree of self-govt

\
turnout = 50%

For Welsh assembly = 50%

Against = 49%

Significance of 1997 Welsh Devolution referendum

‘Wales wouldn’t really exist’ if we voted no in 1997- Carowyn Jones, Welsh Labour leader

Welsh Assembly now radically have more powers (key policy changes such as free prescriptions, carrier bag charge)

1975 European Economic Community referendum

called to try unite Labour party, 1st national referendum to be held throughout the UK

\
turnout = 64%

Yes = 67%

2014 Scottish Independence referendum

called because Scotland wanted independence from Westminister

\
turnout = 84%

no = 55%

significance of 2014 Scottish Independence referendum

* highest recorded turnout for an election/referendum in UK since 1910
* increased political activism with SNP membership, tripling from 25 000 to 75 000
* referendum increased citizen participation and interest in politics making a more democratic society
* 2011 Scottish attitudes survey indicated 39% of population had no or very little interest in politics, dropped to 31% in 2014

2016 EU Referendum

Cameron promised that if Tory won 2015 GE, there would be a Brexit vote by the end of 2017

\
turnout = 42.2%

leave = 52%

significance of 2016 EU Referendum

* many citizens failed to accept the referendum was democratic
* Put it to the People march (2019) where 100 000s demanded a new referendum
* opportunity for growth with emerging markets BRICS being more appealing

Arguments for referendums strengthening democracy

* form of direct democracy
* necessary in representative democracy as it increases accountability
* encourages political participation, thus increasing representation
* important for coalition govts who have no clear mandate

Against referendums strengthening democracy

* undermines parliamentary sovereignty, elected MPs need to be allowed to carry out functions and duties they have been elected to do as we use representative democracy
* voters show little desire to participate
* May 2011 - AV referendum 41% turnout
* 35% turnout March 2011 over devolving further powers to Welsh assembly
* create political uncertainty
* decisions bind future generations