AP Psychology: Learning Unit

Learning

A relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience, appearing in the three forms of classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and modeling.

Associative learning

The process of linking two events/stimuli that occur close together, which is then illustrated in a change in behavior

Classical conditioning

Learning associations by relating two stimuli with each other, and then anticipating events

Operant conditioning

Learning associations by relating our behavior with its consequences, which leads to either repetition or avoidance of that behavior

Watson

A scientist who studied learning and disregarded inner thoughts, feelings, and motives, and focused on how organisms respond to stimuli in their environment. Essentially, he believed that psychology was founded upon observable behavior. His beliefs are embodied by behaviorism.

Pavlov and his experiment

A Russian doctor who believed that mentalistic concepts of consciousness were irrelevant to psychology, and who laid the foundation for research on classical conditioning and behaviorism through his experiments with dogs. His famous experiment involved exposing a dog to the sound of a bell just before presenting it with food, all the while measuring its salivation. Over time, the dog began to salivate when it heard the bell, but before it received the food, indicating that it had subconsciously associated the sound of the bell with the presence of food, and was thus classically conditioned

Neutral Stimulus

A stimulus which produces no specific response

Unconditioned stimulus

A stimulus which produces a response without the test subject needing to be taught to respond

Unconditioned response

The reaction that results from the unconditioned stimulus

Conditioned stimulus

The neutral stimulus, once the test subject has associated it with the unconditioned stimulus; this produces a conditioned response

Conditioned response

Also known as the conditional reflex, this is the reaction to the conditioned response

Respondent behavior

(Re)actions that occurs as an automatic response to stimulus, as is a result of classical conditioning.

Acquisition

In classical conditioning, this is the initial learning of the stimulus-response relationship, which most optimally occurs when the neutral stimulus is presented half a second before the unconditioned stimulus

Habituation

Decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation

Extinction

The diminishing response to a conditioned stimulus over time when it is no longer presented alongside an unconditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous recovery

After a conditioned response seems to have become extinct, this is the reappearance of a conditioned response to a conditioned stimulus

Generalization

The response to a stimuli that is similar, but slightly different from the conditioned stimuli

Discrimination

The learned ability to tell the difference between a conditioned stimulus and an irrelevant stimulus

B. F. Skinner

An English psychologist who used the law of effect, the idea that rewarded behavior is likely to recur, to develop "behavioral technology," and led the way for studies of operant conditioning. He famously used an operant chamber, or skinner box to study what conditions foster efficient and enduring learning in rats.

Operant behavior

Actions that interact with the environment to produce stimuli

Shaping

the procedure of using reinforcers to gradually guide an animal to perform the desired behavior

Primary reinforcer

The encouragement or discouragement of a behavior that appears in a form that is naturally gratifying or displeasing. For example, a piece of food to encourage a behavior or a painful electric shock to discourage any other behaviors are primary reinforcers.

Secondary reinforcer

Also known as conditioned reinforcement, this is the encouragement or discouragement of a behavior that appears in the form of something which we have been taught to see as gratifying or displeasing, because it is linked to more basic rewards/punishments. For example, giving money to encourage a behavior or a mean tone of voice to discourage any other behavior are secondary/conditioned reinforcers, because by themselves they mean nothing, but based on our knowledge, we appreciate money because it can be used to aid our survival, and we do not like mean tones of voices because this indicates unkindness.

Physical reinforcer

The encouragement or discouragement of a behavior that is tangible. For example, a hug and spanking are physical reinforcements.

Psychological reinforcer

The encouragement or discouragement of a behavior that is emotional. For example, praise and insults are psychological reinforcements.

Symbolic reinforcer

The encouragement or discouragement of a behavior through an image with a meaning. For example, a smiley face or a star are symbolic reinforcements.

Continuous reinforcement

A schedule of reinforcement in which the behavior is encouraged every time that it occurs, creating rapid learning and rapid extinction.

Partial/Intermittent reinforcement

A schedule of reinforcement in which the behavior is encouraged only sometimes, creating slow learning, and greater resistance to extinction than with continuous reinforcement.

Fixed ratio schedule

Behavior is rewarded after a certain number of correct responses. For example, if a rat is given a piece of food for every five times it pushes a lever, it will increase this behavior.

Variable ratio schedule

Behavior is rewarded after an unpredictable number of correct responses. For example, in gambling you do not know when a reward will be given, but you continue to exhibit the behavior, anticipating that a reward will eventually come.

Fixed interval schedule

Behavior is rewarded after fixed period of time. For example, your behavior of checking for the mail to arrive becomes more frequent, as the time when the postal person arrives draws nearer, because you anticipate a reward, the mail, after waiting a certain amount of time.

Variable interval schedule

Behavior is rewarded after an unpredictable period of time. For example, receiving emails follows this schedule, for it increases your behavior of checking your email, although you do not when you will receive any.

Positive reinforcement

an event that strengthens a response by presenting a typically pleasurable stimulus after a response. ex. food

Negative reinforcement

an event that strengthens a response by reducing or removing an aversive stimulus. ex. aspirin for headache

Punishment

an event that decreases the behavior that follows

Modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.

Disinhibition

lack of restraint; reduction in the 'learned controls' that prevent people from behaving inappropriately.

Observational learning

learning by observing and imitating others.

Latent learning

learning that becomes apparent only when there is some incentive to demonstrate it.

Mirror neurons

frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so.

Cognitive map

A mental representation of a physical landscape

Escape conditioning

A person's behavior causes an unpleasant event to stop

Avoidance conditioning

A person's previous behavior prevents an unpleasant event from reoccurring.

Taste aversion

a learned response to avoid eating spoiled or toxic food.

Rescorla

a behaviorist who argued that when two significant events occur close together in time, an animal learns the predictability of the second event. The more predictable the association, the stronger the conditioned response.

Bandura

the pioneering researcher of observational learning who demonstrated that we are likely to imitate actions that go unpunished. And that we tend to imitate models we perceive as similar to us, successful, or admirable.

Seligman

Theorized that learned helplessness in adulthood is a result of learning to be helpless during childhood, such as growing up with abusive parents.

Desensitization

the decrease in reaction to negative stimuli after repeated exposure

Tolman

Discovered latent learning, understanding that becomes apparent only when there is some incentive to demonstrate it, by experimenting with rats how rats in mazes.

Higher-Order Learning

A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus.